The State of Muslim Education in India by prof. Arun C Mehta [PDF]
Muslim Education in India: Analysis Based on UDISEPlus 2024-25 Data
Abstract
This article examines enrollment patterns for India’s Muslim minority using UDISEPlus 2023-24 and 2024-25 data on the percentage of Muslim enrollment to total enrollment, compared with 2011 Census population figures. It reveals significant inter-state variations in participation and retention from primary to higher secondary levels. Nationally, the Muslim enrollment share was 15.7% in 2023-24 and increased slightly to 15.9% in 2024-25, surpassing the 14.2% population share, though regional disparities persist, with some states excelling and others facing high attrition. These findings underscore the need for tailored policies to address gaps and support the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020’s goal of universal school education by 2030.
The Evolution of Muslim Demography in Post-Independence India: A Historical Analysis
Introduction
Ensuring educational equity for minorities, particularly Muslims who constitute 14.2% of India’s population per the 2011 Census, is vital for social harmony and economic progress. Variations in enrollment shares across states provide critical insights for policy formulation, aligning with NEP 2020’s inclusive vision. This analysis leverages UDISEPlus 2023-24 and 2024-25 data on Muslim enrollment percentages by educational stage, building on prior studies from the Education for All in India website. It highlights how national averages obscure regional inequities, advocating for a detailed, data-driven approach to enhance retention and address gender disparities.
State-wise Share of Muslim Minority Enrolment UDISEPlus 2024-25 by Levels of Education
Methodology
This analysis uses UDISEPlus 2023-24 and 2024-25 data for the percentage of Muslim enrollment to total enrollment across primary, upper primary, secondary, and higher secondary levels, benchmarked against 2011 Census population shares. It incorporates 2021-22 GER data for all social groups and SC for historical context. The focus is on retention ratios, gender variations, and interstate differences to identify policy needs. Note that GER for Muslims is not officially reported; enrollment shares act as a proxy for participation trends.
All India Level Analysis
At the national level, UDISEPlus 2023-24 data shows Muslims accounting for 15.7% of total school enrollment from primary to higher secondary, slightly above their 14.2% population share. By stage, the percentage of Muslim enrollment to total enrollment was: primary (Classes I-V) at 17.4% (boys 17.2%, girls 17.7%), upper primary (Classes VI-VIII) at 15.4% (boys 14.8%, girls 16.0%), secondary (Classes IX-X) at 14.3% (boys 13.5%, girls 15.2%), and higher secondary (Classes XI-XII) at 11.9% (boys 10.9%, girls 13.0%). This reflects a steady decline, with retention from primary to higher secondary around 68.4%, signalling challenges in advancing to higher levels. Girls consistently outperform boys, with the gap widening at higher secondary, likely due to initiatives like scholarships for female students.
For 2024-25, the Muslim enrollment share rose to 15.9% overall from primary to higher secondary (boys 15.4%, girls 16.4%). By stage: primary (Classes I-V) at 17.7% (boys 17.4%, girls 18.0%), upper primary (Classes VI-VIII) at 15.4% (boys 14.9%, girls 16.0%), secondary (Classes IX-X) at 14.2% (boys 13.4%, girls 15.2%), and higher secondary (Classes XI-XII) at 12.0% (boys 11.2%, girls 12.9%). Retention from primary to higher secondary improved marginally, though the decline persists, with a notable drop at higher secondary.
For historical context, Gross Enrollment Ratios (GER) for all social groups in 2021-22 were: foundational (Pre-Primary to Class II) 41% (boys 41%, girls 41%), preparatory (Classes III-V) 96% (boys 95%, girls 97%), middle (Classes VI-VIII) 90% (boys 88%, girls 92%), and secondary (Classes IX-XII) 69% (boys 67%, girls 70%). For 2023-24, GER was: foundational 94.1%, primary 105.1%, upper primary 92.1%, secondary 74.0%, and higher secondary 57.5% (all social groups). For 2024-25, GER stood at: foundational 41.4%, preparatory 95.4%, middle 90.3%, and secondary 68.5%. For Scheduled Castes (SC), 2023-24 GER was: foundational 38.8%, primary 99.8%, upper primary 96.1%, and secondary 70.8%; 2024-25 mirrored these closely (foundational 38.8%, preparatory 99.8%, middle 96.1%, secondary 70.8%).
UDISEPlus does not provide GER disaggregated by religion, including Muslims, due to the lack of updated age-specific population data by religion. However, the enrollment share trends suggest Muslims are overrepresented at primary levels (implied GER >100%) but underrepresented at higher secondary (implied GER ~80-85%), reflecting retention challenges. It should be noted that the collection of individual student data through SDMS, as part of UDISEPlus, began during the 2022-23 data collection cycle. This enables tracking of each child, particularly benefiting Muslim Minority, SC, and ST students, who are more likely to be potential dropouts, by monitoring their progress across grades over the years.
Comparing the years, both show overrepresentation at primary (17.4% in 2023-24 vs. 17.7% in 2024-25) declining to underrepresentation at higher secondary (11.9% vs. 12.0%), indicating stable but insufficient progression. The girl advantage persists, widening in 2024-25 at higher levels (girls 12.9% vs. boys 11.2%). These patterns align with overall GER trends, highlighting systemic barriers like economic constraints and infrastructure deficits, necessitating targeted interventions to meet NEP 2020 goals.
Percentage of Muslim Enrollment to Total Enrollment at Different Levels of Education (All India), UDISEPlus 2023-24 and 2024-25
| Level of Education | 2023-24 (%) | 2024-25 (%) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Boys | Girls | Total | Boys | Girls | Total | |
| Primary (Classes I-V) | 17.2 | 17.7 | 17.4 | 17.4 | 18.0 | 17.7 |
| Upper Primary (Classes VI-VIII) | 14.8 | 16.0 | 15.4 | 14.9 | 16.0 | 15.4 |
| Secondary (Classes IX-X) | 13.5 | 15.2 | 14.3 | 13.4 | 15.2 | 14.2 |
| Higher Secondary (Classes XI-XII) | 10.9 | 13.0 | 11.9 | 11.2 | 12.9 | 12.0 |
| Primary to Higher Secondary (Total, Classes I-XII)) | – | – | 15.7 | – | – | 15.9 |
Source: UDISEPlus 2023-24 and 2024-25 data,
Regional Patterns and State Performance
Southern Region: Models of Success
Kerala leads with a 39.2% Muslim enrollment share in 2024-25 (population 26.6%), up from 38.7% in 2023-24, with 81.7% retention from primary (41.4%) to higher secondary (34.8%). Gender balance is strong, with girls slightly ahead. Karnataka’s share is 16.2% in 2024-25 (from 16.1%, population 12.9%), but higher secondary drops to 12.4%, showing attrition; girls lead. Tamil Nadu (7.1%, population 5.9%) and Andhra Pradesh (8.8%, population 9.6%) maintain steady shares, with minimal gender gaps.
Eastern Region: High Representation with Variable Retention
West Bengal’s 36.8% share in 2024-25 (population 27.0%) exceeds 36.3% in 2023-24, with 82.7% retention but significant girl favouritism at higher secondary (36.2% vs. 27.7% boys). Assam’s 42.0% (from 41.6%, population 34.2%) declines to 30.9% higher secondary (60.4% retention), with girls ahead. Bihar’s 17.8% (from 18.9%, population 16.9%) falls to 14.0% higher secondary, with a consistent girl advantage.
Northern Region: Concerning Patterns of Attrition
Uttar Pradesh’s 17.3% share in 2024-25 (population 19.3%) is below 17.1% in 2023-24, with 37.1% attrition to higher secondary (12.5%). Rajasthan’s 7.1% (from 6.5%, population 9.1%) halves to 3.9% higher secondary. Haryana’s 9.2% (from 9.1%, population 7.0%) drops to 4.2% higher secondary (66.7% attrition), with boys gaining at upper levels.
Exceptional Cases: Demographic Distinctiveness
Jammu and Kashmir (67.9%, population 68.3%) maintains 93.0% retention, up from 67.8% in 2023-24. Lakshadweep’s 99.6% (population 96.6%) shows near parity. Ladakh’s 59.6% (population 58.5%) rises to 63.7% at higher secondary.
State-wise Comparative Table (2023-24 vs. 2024-25 Muslim Enrollment Share %)
| India/State | % Muslim Population (2011 Census) | % Muslim Enrollment 2023-24 (Primary to Higher Secondary Total) | % Muslim Enrollment 2024-25 (Primary to Higher Secondary Total) |
|---|---|---|---|
| India | 14.2 | 15.7 | 15.9 |
| A & N Islands | 8.5 | 10.0 | 10.3 |
| Andhra Pradesh | 9.6 | 8.8 | 8.8 |
| Arunachal Pradesh | 2.0 | 1.8 | 1.9 |
| Assam | 34.2 | 41.6 | 42.0 |
| Bihar | 16.9 | 18.9 | 17.8 |
| Chandigarh | 4.9 | 5.4 | 5.4 |
| Chhattisgarh | 2.0 | 1.8 | 1.8 |
| Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu | 3.8 | 5.4 | 5.4 |
| Delhi | 12.9 | 14.1 | 14.5 |
| Goa | 8.3 | 12.6 | 12.7 |
| Gujarat | 9.7 | 10.6 | 10.7 |
| Haryana | 7.0 | 9.1 | 9.2 |
| Himachal Pradesh | 2.2 | 2.6 | 2.6 |
| Jammu and Kashmir | 68.3 | 67.8 | 67.9 |
| Jharkhand | 14.5 | 14.8 | 15.3 |
| Karnataka | 12.9 | 16.1 | 16.2 |
| Kerala | 26.6 | 38.7 | 39.2 |
| Ladakh | 58.5 | 59.0 | 59.6 |
| Lakshadweep | 96.6 | 99.7 | 99.6 |
| Madhya Pradesh | 6.6 | 5.9 | 6.1 |
| Maharashtra | 11.5 | 13.8 | 14.0 |
| Manipur | 8.4 | 9.1 | 9.4 |
| Meghalaya | 4.4 | 4.0 | 4.1 |
| Mizoram | 1.4 | 0.6 | 0.6 |
| Nagaland | 2.5 | 5.2 | 5.2 |
| Odisha | 2.2 | 2.3 | 2.4 |
| Puducherry | 6.1 | 8.6 | 8.4 |
| Punjab | 1.9 | 2.8 | 2.9 |
| Rajasthan | 9.1 | 6.5 | 7.1 |
| Sikkim | 1.6 | 2.5 | 2.6 |
| Tamil Nadu | 5.9 | 7.1 | 7.1 |
| Telangana | 12.7 | 15.2 | 15.9 |
| Tripura | 8.6 | 10.3 | 10.3 |
| Uttar Pradesh | 19.3 | 17.1 | 17.3 |
| Uttarakhand | 13.9 | 15.6 | 16.0 |
| West Bengal | 27.0 | 36.3 | 36.8 |
Factors Influencing Regional Disparities
Disparities stem from historical educational investments, economic conditions, policies like minority scholarships, and cultural norms. Southern states benefit from robust infrastructure, while northern regions struggle with poverty and migration. Gender trends, favouring girls, reflect outreach success but highlight boys’ early workforce entry in some areas.
Policy Implications and Use of Smart Technologies
Tailored strategies are essential: Replicate Kerala’s retention models in lagging states with transition support. Smart technologies, including AI for dropout prediction, can enhance access in Muslim-dense areas. Virtual classrooms and mobile apps, as noted on Education for All in India, offer personalized learning, supported by infrastructure upgrades and incentives.
Implications for NEP 2020 Universal Education Target by 2030
NEP 2020 aims for universal education by 2030, but challenges persist with 2024-25 enrollment patterns and low higher secondary shares, notably in Bihar (17.8%) and Uttar Pradesh (17.3%). Muslim attrition underscores the need for strengthened early education and equity measures to achieve this target.
Concluding Observations
National data obscures sharp regional divides in Muslim educational participation, with southern states like Kerala and West Bengal showing strong overrepresentation and retention, while northern states such as Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan exhibit significant under-participation and high dropout rates, necessitating urgent, region-specific interventions. The modest increase in Muslim enrollment share from 15.7% in 2023-24 to 15.9% in 2024-25 is a positive step, yet the persistent decline from primary (17.7% in 2024-25) to higher secondary (12.0%) – along with a widening gender gap favouring girls (12.9% vs. 11.2% boys) – points to systemic issues like economic barriers and inadequate facilities in minority-heavy regions.
Integrating UDISEPlus data across years with technological advancements can drive equity, but progress hinges on more than enrollment tracking. With the Student Data Management System (SDMS)-UDISEPlus now capturing individual student details, including religion, the Ministry of Education must prioritize calculating comprehensive enrollment ratios, transition rates, and retention metrics specifically for Muslims at all levels. This would enable precise tracking of equity gaps, inform targeted policy adjustments, and align with NEP 2020’s inclusive goal, ensuring no community is excluded from achieving universal school education by 2030. Policymakers should leverage these insights for customized strategies to fulfil this equitable vision.
Suggested Readings
- Unified District Information System for Education Plus (UDISEPlus): Different years.
- Education for All in India: For Research on School Education in India
- Mehta, A. C., “The State of Muslim Education in India: A Data-Driven Analysis,” Education for All in India.
