Girls-Education-in-India.
The Status of Girls’ Education in India in 2025
Progress, Disparities, and Pathways to Equity
Introduction: A Historical Perspective
The trajectory of girls’ education in India reflects a complex interplay of cultural, social, and political forces, evolving from ancient inclusivity to colonial interventions and post-independence reforms. In the Vedic period (circa 1500 BCE), texts like the Rigveda celebrated women’s intellectual contributions, with figures such as Gargi and Maitreyi engaging in philosophical debates alongside men, underscoring an era of relative gender parity in learning. However, the medieval period marked a regression, influenced by patriarchal norms, purdah systems, and feudal structures that confined women to domestic roles, drastically curtailing access to formal education. Colonial rule introduced pivotal shifts; the Wood’s Despatch of 1854 explicitly advocated for female education, laying the groundwork for institutional reforms, while pioneers like Savitribai Phule established India’s first girls’ school in Pune in 1848, defying societal backlash to champion widow remarriage and anti-caste education.
Post-independence, constitutional mandates under Article 45 aimed for free and compulsory education for children up to age 14, culminating in the Right to Education Act (RTE) of 2009, which mandated neighbourhood schools and zero-rejection policies. The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 further envisions universal access to quality education by 2030, emphasizing gender inclusion through foundational literacy, equity-focused curricula, and vocational pathways. Yet, historical legacies of inequality persist, manifesting in enrollment gaps, dropout rates, and infrastructural deficits. This article, aligned with the analytical framework at educationforallinindia.com, examines the current status of girls’ education using the Unified District Information System for Education Plus (UDISE+) 2024-25 report. It analyses key indicators at national and state levels, the role of female teachers, feasibility of NEP goals, and strategic interventions under Samagra Shiksha, incorporating enrolment ratios (Gross Enrolment Ratio – GER, Net Enrolment Ratio – NER), dropout, repetition, transition, and retention rates.
National-Level Analysis: Enrollment, Access, and Equity Indicators
At the national level, India’s school education system serves 24.69 crore students from pre-primary to higher secondary, with girls comprising 11.93 crore (48.3%) – a modest improvement, signalling narrowing gender disparities in access. However, disaggregated data reveals persistent gaps across educational stages. Pre-primary enrollment stands at 1.40 crore, with girls at 65.1 lakh (46.4%) versus boys at 75.3 lakh (53.6%). This early skew, often linked to familial priorities favouring boys, foreshadows retention challenges.
Primary enrollment (Classes 1-5) reaches 10.44 crore, where girls constitute 5.01 crore (48.0%), nearly at parity with boys (5.43 crore). The girl’s GER is 93.3%, reflecting barriers like household chores and safety concerns; NER is 76.9% total, 78.5% for girls. Primary repetition rate is low at 2.9% (girls 2.5%).
Transitioning to upper primary (Classes 6-8), enrollment dips to 6.37 crore, with girls at 3.08 crore (48.4%) against boys’ 3.29 crore. The GER falls to 99.5%, with girls at 101.1% (NER 67.3% vs. 69.1% for girls); repetition 1.7% (girls 1.6%). At the elementary level (Classes 1-8), combined enrollment is 16.81 crore, with girls at 8.09 crore (48.1%), underscoring a 1.9 percentage point gender gap compared to boys. Secondary (Classes 9-10) sees 3.72 crore enrolled, with GER 78.7%, girls’ share 48.6% (GER 80.2%, NER 47.5%); repetition4.6% (girls 4.1%). Higher secondary (Classes 11-12) enrollment is lowest at 2.76 crore (GER 58.4%, girls 50.1%, GER 60.9%, NER 37.6%); repetition4.6% (girls 4.1%).
Children with Special Needs (CWSN) enrollment totals 16.4 lakh at elementary level, but girls number 6.93 lakh (42.2%), indicating compounded vulnerabilities. New admissions to Class 1 with pre-school experience stand at 1.92 crore, with 91.7 lakh girls (47.8%) reporting such exposure—vital for foundational skills.
Comparing boys and girls, the Gender Parity Index (GPI) is 0.98 nationally, dipping to 0.96 in secondary stages. Infrastructure aids retention: 96.1% of schools have girls’ toilets (functional: 90.7%). Pupil-Teacher Ratio (PTR) is 20:1 in primary (benefiting girls in female-led classes), rising to 23:1 in higher secondary.
Female teachers, numbering 54.8 lakh (54.2% of 1.01 crore total), are pivotal for girls’ education, fostering role models and gender-sensitive pedagogies. Trained female teachers stand at 91.3% in primary but 87.9% in upper primary. Their presence correlates with higher girls’ retention in rural areas.
Dropout rates: Primary 0.3% (girls 0.0%), upper primary 3.5% (girls 2.9%), secondary 11.5% (girls 9.6%). Transition rates: Primary to upper primary 92.2% (girls 93.0%), upper primary to secondary 86.6% (girls 87.3%), secondary to higher secondary 75.1% (girls 77.9%). Retention rates (100 – dropout): Primary 92.4% (girls 93.4%), upper primary 82.8% (girls 84.2%), secondary 62.9% (girls 64.2%).
Key Indicators: State-Wise Analysis for Selected States
State-level variations amplify national trends, with southern and north-eastern states outperforming northern counterparts. Below are key indicators for selected states (Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Mizoram, Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Haryana), compared to all India figures (bold). Data focuses on girls where available.
Table 1: Key Indicators for Girls’ Education (UDISE+ 2024-25)
| Indicator / State | All India (Girls) | Kerala | Tamil Nadu | Bihar | Uttar Pradesh | Rajasthan | Mizoram | Jharkhand | Andhra Pradesh | Telangana | Haryana |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Total Enrollment (crore, girls %) | 11.93 (48.3%) | 0.30 (49.2%) | 0.61 (48.9%) | 1.05 (49.6%) | 2.03 (47.3%) | 0.77 (47.1%) | 0.14 (50.0%) | 0.36 (49.1%) | 0.41 (48.6%) | 0.36 (48.7%) | 0.27 (46.1%) |
| Primary GER (girls) | 92.3% | 93.3% | 93.1% | 78.9% | 83.9% | 89.7% | 139.0% | 82.3% | 90.5% | 88.7% | 92.1% |
| Upper Primary GER (girls) | 92.5% | 100.1% | 98.9% | 72.2% | 86.3% | 93.5% | 106.9% | 70.5% | 85.6% | 82.1% | 85.3% |
| Secondary GER (girls) | 80.2% | 99.4% | 94.4% | 54.8% | 64.3% | 81.2% | 102.2% | 62.3% | 78.9% | 75.4% | 72.6% |
| Higher Secondary GER (girls) | 60.9% | 91.7% | 89.1% | 40.4% | 57.2% | 65.1% | 58.8% | 42.1% | 60.3% | 58.9% | 55.8% |
| GPI (Secondary) | 0.96 | 1.02 | 1.01 | 0.80 | 0.85 | 0.82 | 1.01 | 0.78 | 0.94 | 0.92 | 0.90 |
| Dropout Rate Primary (girls %) | 0.0% | 0.7% | 2.5% | 1.2% | 0.0% | 3.3% | 10.7% | 1.5% | 0.3% | 0.4% | 0.6% |
| Dropout Rate Upper Primary (girls %) | 2.9% | 0.3% | 02.4% | 6.6% | 2.9% | 3.6% | 10.3% | 9.8% | 3.4% | 4.2% | 5.0% |
| Dropout Rate Secondary (girls %) | 9.6% | 3.7% | 5.3% | 6.8% | 5.1% | 7.1% | 16.0% | 19.7% | 8.9% | 10.1% | 12.8% |
| Transition Rate Upper Primary to Secondary (girls %) | 87.3% | 98.2% | 97.3% | 68.9% | 77.6% | 90.4% | 81.4% | 68.5% | 84.6% | 82.3% | 80.2% |
| Retention Rate Upper Primary (girls %) | 84.2% | 99.5% | 96.1% | 77.8% | 70.7% | 79.6% | 54.0% | 90.2% | 96.6% | 95.8% | 95.0% |
| Repetition Rate Primary (girls %) | 2.5% | 0.8% | 0.6% | 7.0% | 0.7% | 2.8% | 11.8% | 2.4% | 1.2% | 1.3% | 1.4% |
| Female Teachers % | 54.2% | 68.5% | 65.2% | 42.1% | 48.3% | 45.7% | 62.4% | 40.8% | 52.6% | 50.9% | 55.1% |
| Single Teacher Schools (no.) | 1.04 lakh | 63 | 3671 | 1,865 | 9,508 | 6,117 | 117 | 4,200 | 2,100 | 1,800 | 950 |
| Zero Enrollment Schools (no.) | 20,817 | 47 | 311 | 5 | 9,508 | 293 | 27 | 1,200 | 650 | 550 | 420 |
Source: Compiled from UDISE+ 2024-25 Report, Ministry of Education and analysis at educationforallinindia.com
Kerala leads with near-parity GPI (1.02) and low dropouts (secondary 3.7%), supported by high female teacher ratio (68.5%). Tamil Nadu follows with robust GER (secondary 94.4% for girls). Bihar lags with secondary dropout 6.8% for girls and low female teachers (42.1%), while Uttar Pradesh shows GPI 0.85 in secondary. Rajasthan and Jharkhand face high single-teacher schools (6,117 and 9,172), straining quality. Mizoram achieves parity, with low zero-enrollment schools (27). Andhra Pradesh and Telangana show improving trends. Comparatively, boys outnumber girls by 10-15% in northern states, versus parity in Kerala. CWSN girls’ enrollment is lowest in Bihar.
Net Enrolment Ratio: Girls, UDISEPlus 2024-25
States like Delhi, Goa, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Tripura achieve 100% NER for girls at the elementary level, reflecting strong regional progress, while southern states like Tamil Nadu (91.9%) and Karnataka (98.0%) also perform well. However, states like Bihar (69.4%), Madhya Pradesh (71.4%), and Uttar Pradesh (75.3%) lag significantly at the elementary level, with even lower NERs at secondary (31.2% in Bihar) and higher secondary (21.6% in Bihar) levels. This decline in NER as education levels progress, particularly in northern and eastern states, highlights challenges such as early dropouts, socio-economic barriers, and inadequate infrastructure, especially in rural areas.
The data underscores the need for targeted interventions – such as improving access to secondary education, addressing regional disparities, and enhancing facilities like CWSN toilets and digital tools – to ensure equitable enrolment and retention of girls, critical for NEP’s vision of universal education by 2030.
Net Enrolment Ratio: Girls, UDISEPlus 2024-25
| Primary (1 to 5) | Upper Primary (6 to 8) | Elementary (1 to 8) | Secondary (9-10) | Hr Secondary (11-12) | ||||||
| Girls | Total | Girls | Total | Girls | Total | Girls | Total | Girls | Total | |
| India | 78.5 | 76.9 | 69.1 | 67.3 | 84.6 | 82.8 | 48.6 | 47.5 | 37.6 | 35.8 |
| Andaman and Nicobar Islands | 79.6 | 79.4 | 67.3 | 66.0 | 85.4 | 84.3 | 51.3 | 51.0 | 50.1 | 45.3 |
| Andhra Pradesh | 84.4 | 82.9 | 85.2 | 82.6 | 90.1 | 88.6 | 67.0 | 64.6 | 51.4 | 47.5 |
| Arunachal Pradesh | 86.5 | 84.3 | 54.9 | 51.4 | 87.7 | 85.6 | 37.1 | 34.4 | 26.2 | 24.2 |
| Assam | 92.3 | 89.2 | 71.4 | 66.3 | 93.6 | 89.7 | 53.6 | 47.8 | 30.5 | 27.7 |
| Bihar | 65.6 | 63.8 | 51.4 | 48.9 | 69.4 | 67.2 | 31.2 | 28.8 | 21.6 | 20.2 |
| Chandigarh | 94.5 | 90.7 | 100.0 | 94.5 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 78.0 | 72.6 | 79.9 | 70.7 |
| Chhattisgarh | 78.7 | 77.9 | 73.2 | 71.9 | 84.4 | 83.3 | 48.6 | 46.5 | 38.5 | 34.2 |
| D & N & D & D | 98.5 | 97.7 | 93.9 | 89.5 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 77.9 | 71.1 | 61.6 | 44.9 |
| Delhi | 100.0 | 95.5 | 100.0 | 99.7 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 82.5 | 77.1 | 68.8 | 63.5 |
| Goa | 100.0 | 100.0 | 98.7 | 94.6 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 77.5 | 75.3 | 72.3 | 64.7 |
| Gujarat | 80.3 | 77.9 | 68.6 | 67.5 | 85.9 | 83.5 | 40.6 | 42.1 | 24.7 | 24.0 |
| Haryana | 80.3 | 77.4 | 79.2 | 76.2 | 89.6 | 86.8 | 62.1 | 60.1 | 52.5 | 49.0 |
| Himachal Pradesh | 85.8 | 85.4 | 64.0 | 63.5 | 93.8 | 92.8 | 39.5 | 40.9 | 32.7 | 33.1 |
| Jammu and Kashmir | 100.0 | 100.0 | 54.3 | 52.6 | 93.0 | 90.9 | 35.7 | 35.2 | 23.9 | 23.0 |
| Jharkhand | 77.1 | 75.8 | 61.0 | 58.6 | 80.0 | 78.5 | 46.7 | 44.4 | 28.3 | 26.8 |
| Karnataka | 92.2 | 90.7 | 85.6 | 83.6 | 98.0 | 96.4 | 73.7 | 71.4 | 51.4 | 44.6 |
| Kerala | 85.6 | 85.6 | 83.7 | 83.2 | 91.0 | 90.6 | 73.5 | 73.8 | 66.8 | 66.0 |
| Ladakh | 90.0 | 89.9 | 66.2 | 59.4 | 91.3 | 87.8 | 52.1 | 47.8 | 38.4 | 32.6 |
| Lakshadweep | 92.7 | 94.2 | 69.6 | 70.1 | 88.1 | 89.0 | 62.9 | 61.8 | 41.1 | 40.0 |
| Madhya Pradesh | 64.1 | 63.9 | 57.8 | 57.6 | 71.4 | 71.0 | 36.6 | 37.3 | 24.9 | 24.7 |
| Maharashtra | 98.3 | 94.9 | 83.7 | 82.1 | 98.6 | 95.5 | 61.1 | 62.2 | 47.1 | 46.7 |
| Manipur | 100.0 | 100.0 | 69.7 | 66.7 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 54.7 | 52.4 | 44.2 | 43.1 |
| Meghalaya | 100.0 | 100.0 | 80.0 | 71.5 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 50.3 | 42.3 | 25.7 | 21.4 |
| Mizoram | 100.0 | 100.0 | 84.0 | 79.6 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 68.3 | 62.6 | 40.4 | 36.2 |
| Nagaland | 80.1 | 78.2 | 53.9 | 50.6 | 77.8 | 75.3 | 40.9 | 37.5 | 27.9 | 25.3 |
| Odisha | 85.3 | 84.7 | 83.0 | 81.6 | 89.7 | 89.0 | 66.6 | 65.1 | 47.6 | 44.6 |
| Puducherry | 87.1 | 87.0 | 90.3 | 87.9 | 92.6 | 91.6 | 83.6 | 80.2 | 86.2 | 78.6 |
| Punjab | 91.2 | 90.6 | 75.4 | 75.1 | 96.1 | 95.1 | 53.4 | 53.9 | 45.4 | 45.5 |
| Rajasthan | 76.5 | 75.3 | 64.1 | 63.9 | 83.2 | 81.9 | 44.7 | 45.6 | 33.6 | 34.2 |
| Sikkim | 78.6 | 79.0 | 54.5 | 53.5 | 77.6 | 77.3 | 41.9 | 41.5 | 31.0 | 28.6 |
| Tamil Nadu | 87.2 | 85.7 | 90.3 | 88.8 | 91.9 | 90.4 | 82.7 | 81.3 | 76.0 | 71.0 |
| Telangana | 95.3 | 94.4 | 79.6 | 79.6 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 58.2 | 59.4 | 38.8 | 37.7 |
| Tripura | 100.0 | 100.0 | 89.7 | 85.7 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 67.6 | 63.3 | 49.1 | 45.3 |
| Uttar Pradesh | 64.4 | 62.6 | 59.5 | 57.0 | 75.3 | 73.5 | 32.5 | 31.9 | 31.7 | 31.1 |
| Uttarakhand | 95.7 | 92.5 | 74.9 | 72.9 | 100.0 | 98.0 | 51.2 | 50.2 | 43.0 | 41.5 |
| West Bengal | 86.6 | 85.7 | 69.4 | 67.2 | 92.6 | 91.1 | 47.3 | 44.2 | 32.6 | 29.1 |
Age-specific Enrolment Ratio: Girls, UDISEPlus 2024-25
Nationally, the ASER for girls starts at 85.4% for ages 6-10, dips to 64.7% for ages 11-13, rises slightly to 78.6% for ages 14-15, and falls sharply to 52.8% for ages 16-17. This indicates that 14.6% of girls aged 6-10, 35.3% of those aged 11-13, 21.4% of those aged 14-15, and 47.2% of those aged 16-17 are not enrolled in any class. The progressive decline suggests a growing out-of-school population, with the highest dropout or non-enrolment rate at the higher secondary level. Compared to the total population, girls’ ASER is slightly higher (e.g., 85.4% vs. 83.2% for 6-10), reflecting targeted efforts to include girls, but the overall trend points to systemic barriers like poverty, early marriage, or lack of access.
- High-Performing Regions: States like Delhi, Goa, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Tripura achieve 100% ASER for girls in the 6-10 and 14-15 age groups, meaning no girls in these age brackets are out of school. Southern states like Tamil Nadu (90.6% for 6-10, 80.6% for 16-17) and Karnataka (87.2% for 6-10) also perform well, likely due to better infrastructure and socio-economic conditions. UTs like Chandigarh (94.5% for 6-10, 79.9% for 16-17) and Daman & Diu (98.5% for 6-10) benefit from centralized resources.
- Lagging Regions: Northern and eastern states show significant gaps. Bihar has the lowest ASER for girls at 72.8% (6-10), 51.4% (11-13), 31.2% (14-15), and 21.6% (16-17), leaving 27.2%, 48.6%, 68.8%, and 78.4% out of school, respectively—indicating severe dropout or non-enrolment issues. Madhya Pradesh (64.1% for 6-10, 24.9% for 16-17) and Uttar Pradesh (64.4% for 6-10, 31.7% for 16-17) follow suit, with over 35% and 68.3% out-of-school girls in these age groups. North-eastern states like Arunachal Pradesh (86.5% for 6-10, 26.2% for 16-17) show a steep decline, likely due to geographical and resource constraints.
Critical Insights & Implications for NEP 2020
- Out-of-School Crisis: The rising percentage of unenrolled girls (14.6% to 47.2%) as age increases signals a dropout crisis, with higher secondary education being the most vulnerable stage. These girls may include dropouts (e.g., after primary), never-enrolled children (e.g., due to poverty), or out-of-school youth (e.g., engaged in labour).
- Gender Dynamics: Girls’ slightly higher ASER than the total (e.g., 85.4% vs. 83.2% for 6-10) indicates progress in gender inclusion, but the absolute decline suggests that even these gains are insufficient against systemic barriers.
- Regional Inequality: The gap between high-performing southern/UT regions and lagging northern/eastern states reflects uneven resource distribution, policy execution, and socio-economic conditions. North-eastern states’ geographical challenges amplify this disparity.
- Infrastructure Correlation: The earlier UDISE+ 2024-25 data (e.g., 63.5% internet, 35.6% CWSN toilets) suggests that lack of digital and inclusive facilities may contribute to dropouts, particularly at higher levels where such resources are critical.
- Data Concerns: 100% ASER in multiple states (e.g., Delhi, Manipur) across age groups may indicate over-reporting or urban bias, potentially underrepresenting rural or marginalized out-of-school girls.
NEP 2020 aims for 100% Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) by 2030, with ASER providing a key indicator of age-specific access. The current data shows India is far from this target, with nearly half of girls aged 16-17 out of school nationally. Regional disparities necessitate customized strategies—enhancing secondary access in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, addressing north-eastern isolation, and sustaining southern gains. The high out-of-school rate, especially among older girls, threatens NEP’s equity and lifelong learning goals, requiring urgent action on socio-economic barriers and infrastructure.
Age-specific Enrolment Ratio: Girls, UDISEPlus 2024-25
| India/State | Age 6-10 years | Age 11-13 years | Age 6-13 years | Age 14-15 years | Age 16-17 years | |||||
| Girls | Total | Girls | Total | Girls | Total | Girls | Total | Girls | Total | |
| India | 85.4 | 83.2 | 94.7 | 92.7 | 88.9 | 86.8 | 78.6 | 77.3 | 77.8 | 77.2 |
| Andaman and Nicobar Islands | 96.2 | 95.3 | 96.4 | 93.7 | 96.3 | 94.7 | 97.3 | 90.8 | 52.8 | 48.7 |
| Andhra Pradesh | 88.5 | 86.5 | 98.5 | 97.0 | 92.3 | 90.5 | 88.9 | 88.5 | 65.2 | 64.7 |
| Arunachal Pradesh | 90.0 | 87.4 | 89.6 | 87.4 | 89.8 | 87.4 | 77.0 | 74.1 | 59.1 | 57.7 |
| Assam | 98.7 | 94.9 | 94.9 | 89.6 | 97.2 | 92.8 | 84.2 | 76.5 | 52.5 | 47.7 |
| Bihar | 72.8 | 70.6 | 74.1 | 71.3 | 73.3 | 70.9 | 57.7 | 54.3 | 30.7 | 28.9 |
| Chandigarh | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 84.6 | 75.6 |
| Chhattisgarh | 88.3 | 87.0 | 96.6 | 94.1 | 91.4 | 89.6 | 71.2 | 67.0 | 43.9 | 40.1 |
| D & N & D & D | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 70.1 | 53.1 |
| Delhi | 100.0 | 96.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 88.4 | 85.3 |
| Goa | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 98.4 |
| Gujarat | 95.0 | 91.7 | 91.8 | 90.3 | 93.8 | 91.2 | 67.1 | 67.0 | 26.4 | 26.1 |
| Haryana | 83.8 | 80.3 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 91.3 | 88.2 | 94.7 | 94.5 | 74.9 | 74.8 |
| Himachal Pradesh | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 98.1 | 94.8 | 34.1 | 34.7 |
| Jammu and Kashmir | 100.0 | 100.0 | 79.9 | 77.2 | 100.0 | 99.1 | 62.5 | 61.2 | 28.7 | 28.1 |
| Jharkhand | 84.0 | 82.2 | 84.4 | 82.3 | 84.2 | 82.2 | 78.4 | 76.5 | 41.8 | 41.0 |
| Karnataka | 92.4 | 90.8 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 98.2 | 96.6 | 100.0 | 99.5 | 78.7 | 73.6 |
| Kerala | 94.9 | 94.5 | 100.0 | 99.7 | 97.3 | 96.5 | 98.8 | 97.4 | 68.6 | 68.3 |
| Ladakh | 100.0 | 100.0 | 91.9 | 82.5 | 99.2 | 94.9 | 76.9 | 71.9 | 47.4 | 41.9 |
| Lakshadweep | 100.0 | 100.0 | 80.4 | 80.6 | 92.3 | 93.0 | 74.2 | 72.3 | 42.6 | 42.2 |
| Madhya Pradesh | 75.6 | 74.5 | 82.1 | 81.3 | 78.0 | 77.0 | 62.4 | 62.1 | 30.3 | 31.3 |
| Maharashtra | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 86.5 | 85.9 | 50.0 | 50.4 |
| Manipur | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 84.7 | 83.4 | 65.7 | 65.5 |
| Meghalaya | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 94.4 | 63.5 | 56.4 |
| Mizoram | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 97.9 | 94.8 | 60.6 | 57.9 |
| Nagaland | 86.8 | 84.2 | 73.8 | 70.1 | 81.4 | 78.3 | 64.6 | 60.0 | 41.8 | 39.4 |
| Odisha | 86.4 | 85.8 | 97.3 | 96.3 | 90.6 | 89.8 | 85.0 | 84.4 | 62.5 | 60.4 |
| Puducherry | 93.1 | 92.9 | 100.0 | 99.8 | 96.8 | 95.6 | 100.0 | 95.8 | 89.0 | 81.7 |
| Punjab | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 94.4 | 91.6 | 51.7 | 52.8 |
| Rajasthan | 91.0 | 88.7 | 91.2 | 91.0 | 91.1 | 89.6 | 77.7 | 79.2 | 40.3 | 41.6 |
| Sikkim | 92.2 | 91.4 | 76.4 | 74.6 | 85.3 | 84.0 | 69.3 | 67.3 | 38.2 | 37.6 |
| Tamil Nadu | 90.6 | 88.9 | 100.0 | 98.6 | 94.3 | 92.6 | 96.5 | 94.7 | 80.6 | 76.4 |
| Telangana | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 95.7 | 94.0 | 43.4 | 43.8 |
| Tripura | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 98.8 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 83.5 | 79.4 | 55.9 | 52.8 |
| Uttar Pradesh | 67.1 | 65.1 | 95.7 | 94.0 | 77.5 | 75.7 | 68.2 | 68.4 | 56.2 | 56.9 |
| Uttarakhand | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 98.0 | 94.5 | 49.9 | 49.1 |
| West Bengal | 86.7 | 85.8 | 100.0 | 99.3 | 92.7 | 91.1 | 95.4 | 92.1 | 81.5 | 76.2 |
The ASER data presented above reveals a critical need to address the growing out-of-school population, particularly for girls aged 16-17, where nearly half are excluded. Without tackling regional disparities, infrastructure gaps, and socio-economic challenges, India risks missing NEP 2020’s universal education target by 2030.
Feasibility of Universal School Education by 2030: Challenges and Imperatives
NEP 2020 targets 100% GER by 2030, aligning with SDG 4.1. Nationally, elementary GER is 90.6%, but secondary (78.7%) and higher secondary (58.4%) fall short, with girls trailing by 2-3 points. NER and age-specific Enrolment Ratios across levels of school education is far below than universal enrolment. Projections indicate 15-20% annual gap closure needed, feasible with accelerated retention (girls’ dropout: 2.8% upper primary, 7.5% secondary). Barriers include rural-urban divides (rural girls’ secondary GER: 75%) and socioeconomic factors (SC/ST girls: 40% in low-enrollment brackets).
Single-teacher schools (1.25 lakh) and zero-enrollment schools (45,000) highlight inefficiencies; rationalizing them through mergers can redirect resources to girls-focused infrastructure, aiding universal access by optimizing budgets under Samagra Shiksha. Female teachers’ expansion to 60% by 2030 could boost retention by 10-15%. Without these, universalization risks eluding marginalized girls.
Leveraging Samagra Shiksha: Provisions and Enhanced Planning
Samagra Shiksha allocates 40% to equity, with girls-focused norms like Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalayas (KGBVs, Rs. 45 lakh/unit for upgradation to Class 12), National Programme for Education of Girls at Elementary Level (NPEGEL, targeting hardest-to-reach girls with additional support like summer camps), self-defence (Rs. 500/girl/year), and stipends (Rs. 200-500/month for SC/ST girls). It supports uniforms (Rs. 750/girl) and menstrual hygiene (Rs. 300/school), reaching 2.5 million girls. These can accelerate NEP by prioritizing low-GPI districts.
Implementation gaps persist (70% KGBVs operational). Optimize by mandating 20% budgets for gender audits, UDISE+ integration, and stakeholder participation. NIEPA should develop a dedicated girls’ education module, revitalizing frameworks with data analytics and community involvement, emphasizing intensive analysis of indicators like dropout and transition.
Concluding Observations
Regional disparities amplify these national averages, painting a divided educational map. Southern states and Union Territories (UTs) like Tamil Nadu (91.9% elementary NER for girls, 76.0% higher secondary ASER), Karnataka (98.0% elementary, 51.4% higher secondary NER), Kerala (91.0% elementary, 66.8% higher secondary), and Delhi (100% across multiple levels) exemplify excellence, buoyed by urban infrastructure, policy prioritization, and cultural emphasis on education, achieving near-100% ASER in primary ages.
In contrast, northern and eastern states lag perilously: Bihar’s girls’ NER hovers at 69.4% elementary and 21.6% higher secondary, with ASER leaving 27.2% (6-10 years) to 78.4% (16-17 years) out of school; Uttar Pradesh mirrors this at 75.3% elementary and 31.7% higher secondary NER, with 35.6% to 68.3% non-enrolment by age; and Madhya Pradesh records 71.4% elementary NER and 24.9% higher secondary, with 35.9% out-of-school in primary ages. North-eastern states like Arunachal Pradesh (87.7% elementary NER but 26.2% higher secondary) and Jharkhand (80.0% elementary, 28.3% higher secondary) face compounded geographical and resource hurdles, while even high performers like Assam (93.6% elementary) see drops to 30.5% higher secondary NER. Gender Parity Indices (GPI) further illuminate inequities: nationally at 1.02 for primary but dipping to 0.98 for higher secondary, with Bihar at 0.95 and Uttar Pradesh at 0.97, indicating boys overtaking girls at advanced levels due to persistent biases.
Infrastructure insights from UDISE+ 2024-25 reinforce these enrolment trends, showcasing robust basics amid digital and inclusivity shortfalls across 1,471,473 schools. Drinking water reaches 99.3% (99.0% functional), and toilets cover 96.8% for girls (95.3% functional) and 94.5% for boys (90.7% functional), bolstering girl-child retention and aligning with NEP’s sanitation equity goals – top performers like Lakshadweep and Chandigarh hit 100%, though Meghalaya lags at 82.1% availability for girls’ toilets (68.7% functional). Electricity is accessible in 93.7% (92.0% functional), with Kerala and Delhi at 100%, but Arunachal Pradesh trails at 71.8%. Digital lags are pronounced: only 64.7% schools have computers (58.0% functional for pedagogy) and 63.5% internet, with southern/UT leaders like Andhra Pradesh (99.0% internet) contrasting Bihar (25.2% computers) and West Bengal (18.6% internet), perpetuating a divide that hampers NEP’s tech-enabled learning vision. For children with special needs (CWSN), 75.5% schools offer ramps (72.0% with handrails) and just 35.6% dedicated toilets, with Delhi at 98.1% ramps but Bihar at 19.0% CWSN toilets – critical gaps for inclusive education, especially in remote Ladakh (21.6% ramps).
Enrolment patterns over time compound these concerns: total I-XII enrolment declined from 250.99 million in 2017-18 to 232.89 million in 2024-25, with primary girls’ share mirroring this drop from 121.84 million total primary to 104.38 million, and elementary GER falling from 93.2% to 90.6%. Management-wise, private unaided schools’ share rose to 36.80% (from 33.19%), while government schools fell to 50.83% (from 52.5%), signalling parental flight to perceived quality but widening access inequities for low-income girls. Operational red flags persist: despite 10.1 million teachers (7 per school average), 104,125 single-teacher schools and 7,993 zero-enrolment institutions highlight deployment inefficiencies, not shortages, eroding quality in government setups that serve most girls from disadvantaged backgrounds. Data reliability issues – erratic trends post-2017-18, a suspicious 2021-22 GER spike to 109.66%, and UDISEPlus management shifts from NIEPA to the Ministry of Education- further muddy progress tracking, potentially understating out-of-school girls.
These findings carry profound implications for NEP 2020’s universalization mandate, which seeks 100% GER, equitable access, and quality for all by 2030. While primary gender parity nears universality, the 47.2% out-of-school rate for 16-17-year-old girls threatens lifelong learning and economic empowerment, perpetuating cycles of poverty and gender inequality. Regional divides risk a fragmented education system, with southern excellence unable to offset northern/eastern crises, and infrastructure gaps – especially digital (63.5% internet) and CWSN (35.6% toilets)—undermine inclusive, tech-integrated goals. Coupled with enrolment declines and resource misallocation, India faces a potential shortfall of millions in educated girls, stalling SDG 4 and NEP’s equity pillars unless disparities are bridged urgently.
Pathways Forward: Recommendations for Accelerated Progress
To realign with NEP 2020, a multi-pronged strategy is imperative:
- Retention and Re-Engagement: Deploy community-based campaigns and incentives (e.g., expanded scholarships, conditional cash transfers) in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh to slash the 47.2% higher secondary out-of-school rate, targeting early marriage and labor pull factors.
- Infrastructure Equity: Fast-track digital upgrades (e.g., solar-powered internet in north-eastern states) and CWSN facilities, aiming for 90% functionality by 2027, with public-private partnerships to close the 36.5% internet gap.
- Regional Customization: Bolster secondary/higher secondary schools in lagging states via Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan, while scaling best practices from Tamil Nadu and Kerala to northern regions.
- Resource Optimization: Rationalize teacher deployment to phase out single-teacher schools by 2028, enhancing pedagogy in government institutions to rebuild trust and curb private migration.
- Data and Monitoring: Institute independent audits for UDISEPlus to resolve reliability issues, integrating real-time ASER tracking for out-of-school girls.
- Holistic Support: Integrate gender-sensitive curricula, mental health resources, and vocational bridges to higher education, ensuring 100% GPI across levels.
In essence, 2025 marks a pivotal inflection point for girls’ education in India: foundational victories must evolve into sustained, inclusive momentum. With decisive investments in equity and infrastructure, NEP 2020’s vision remains attainable; inaction, however, risks entrenching divides that could echo for generations. The onus lies on policymakers, educators, and communities to transform data-driven insights into transformative action, securing a brighter, more equitable future for every Indian girl.
