Girls’ Education in India: Progress, Challenges, and the Path to Universal School Education (2024)
Introduction
India’s journey towards universal education has seen significant progress, particularly in girls’ education. However, challenges persist in achieving true gender equity and quality education for all, especially among marginalized communities. Girls’ education plays a pivotal role in achieving the goal of universal school education in India. It is essential to ensure that every child, regardless of gender and caste, has access to quality education. By empowering girls through education, we not only promote gender equality but also foster socio-economic development and create a more inclusive society.
Peer-Learning-in-Government-School-in-India-Education-for-All-in-India
Importance of Girls’ Education in Achieving Universal School Education in India
- Gender Disparities in Education: Despite progress, gender disparities persist in India’s education system. As per the National Sample Survey Organization, the female literacy rate in India (ages seven and above) is 65.46 compared to 80.88 for males. Promoting girls’ education is crucial to address this gap and ensure universal school education for all.
- Economic Empowerment: Education equips girls with the necessary skills & knowledge to secure better employment opportunities, contributing to their economic empowerment. According to the World Bank, educating girls can significantly boost a country’s GDP growth. As per UNESCO, for every extra year of schooling a girl receives, her income can increase by 10 to 20.
- Health and Well-being: Educated girls are likely to take informed health decisions, leading to better health for themselves and their families. Studies have shown that educated women are more likely to seek healthcare services for themselves and their children, thus reducing infant and maternal mortality
- Social Development: Girls’ education is linked to lower birth rates, improved child nutrition, and increased participation in community development initiatives. Educated girls are more likely to challenge harmful traditions and advocate for social change, promoting a more inclusive and equitable society.
- Long-term Impact: Investing in girls’ education yields long-term benefits for individuals and society. Educated women are more likely to invest in children’s education, breaking the cycle of intergenerational poverty and contributing to sustainable development.
Girls’ education is instrumental in achieving universal school education in India. By investing in girls’ education, one can create an equitable and prosperous society where every child has the opportunity to fulfil their potential. It is imperative to prioritize girls’ education as a critical strategy towards achieving the goal of universal school education in India. The present article examines the current state of girls’ education in India, highlighting key issues, policy implications, and future directions, focusing on age-appropriate enrolment, retention, and the critical need for increased investment in education.
Review of Studies
Several studies have been conducted on girls’ education in and outside India. The India Early Childhood Education Impact Study (Kaul, V., Bhattacharjee, S., Chaudhary, A. B., Ramanujan, P., Banerji, M., & Nanda, 2017) found significant gender disparities in early childhood education access and quality. The study also found that girls were less likely to be enrolled in preschool programs than boys; however, girls showed slightly better school readiness skills than boys and socio-economic factors played a significant role in determining access to quality early education for both genders. One of the other regular sources is the Annual Status of Education Report (Rural), which showed improvements in girls’ enrolment rates, with nearly equal enrolment for boys and girls in the 6-14 age group. However, ASER found gender gaps in older age groups (15-16 years) and found that learning outcomes were generally low for both genders, but girls often performed slightly better in reading tasks, similar to the findings of a study on early childhood referred above. Before these studies, another study, The Progress of School Education in India (Kingdon, G. G. 2007), documented substantial progress in reducing gender gaps in primary education enrolment and highlighted persistent gaps in secondary education, especially in certain states. It also observed that improvement in enrolment didn’t necessarily translate to improved learning outcomes. Similarly, Bridging education gender gaps in developing countries: The Role of Female Teachers (Muralidharan, K., & Sheth, K. 2016) found that female teachers significantly improved girls’ enrolment and performance as the presence of female teachers increased girls’ attendance by 3-4 percent and also found that test scores for girls improved in schools with female teachers; mainly found strong in more conservative areas. Another study, Gender Equity in Education: A Review of Trends and Factors (Bandyopadhyay, M., & Subrahmanian, R. 2008), identified poverty as a significant barrier to girls’ education, especially in rural areas and highlighted the intersectionality of gender with caste and socio-economic status in educational outcomes and emphasized the need for gender-sensitive curricula and teaching practices.
The above findings collectively suggest that while India made impressive progress towards access to education for girls, challenges remain, particularly in terms of quality, retention in higher grades, and addressing intersectional disadvantages. The studies also highlight the positive impact of targeted interventions, such as increasing the number of female teachers.
Population Projections and Enrolment Trends
The Size of Girls Population
Understanding the scale of the challenge requires looking at the projected female population in relevant age groups and analysing enrolment trends over the past decade.
Table 1: Projected Female Population by Age Group (In Million)
| Age Group
(In Years) |
2021 | 2026 | 2031 | 2036 |
| 6-11 | 65.2 | 63.8 | 62.1 | 60.3 |
| 11-14 | 33.7 | 32.9 | 32.2 | 31.4 |
| 6-14 | 98.9 | 96.7 | 94.3 | 91.7 |
| 15-16 | 22.1 | 21.6 | 21.1 | 20.5 |
| 17-18 | 21.8 | 21.3 | 20.8 | 20.2 |
The data represented in Table 1 shows the projected female population in India by age group for the years 2021, 2026, 2031, and 2036, which is based on the Expert Committee’s Population Projections for India and States 2011-2036 produced by the Ministry of Statistics & Programme Implementation (MoSPI, 2019), Government of India.
In age 6-11, the projected female population gradually decreases from 65.2 million in 2021 to 60.3 million in 2036. A similar trend is observed in the 11-14 age group, with the population declining from 33.7 million in 2021 to 31.4 million in 2036. The combined population of the 6-14 age group also depicts a decreasing trend, from 98.9 million in 2021 to 91.7 million in 2036.
As for the 15-16 and 17-18 age groups, the data illustrates a consistent decline in the projected female population from 2021 to 2036. For the 15-16 age group, the population decreases from 22.1 million to 20.5 million; for the 17-18 age group, it decreases from 21.8 million to 20.2 million over the same period.
The data suggests a downward trend in India’s projected female population across different age groups. Such insights are vital for policymakers and stakeholders to plan and implement targeted initiatives to address the evolving needs of the female population in various age brackets, ensuring appropriate educational, health, and social support systems to cater to the changing demographic scenarios. India. Such insights are vital for policymakers and stakeholders to plan and implement targeted initiatives to address the evolving needs of the female population in various age brackets, ensuring appropriate educational, health,
Trends in Girls’ Education Enrolment in India: A Decade in Review (2012-2022)
An analysis of girls’ enrolment data across educational levels in India based on UDISE data from 2012-13 to 2021-22 (Table 2) reveals several significant trends and areas of concern. This section examines the changes in enrolment patterns across primary, upper primary, secondary, and higher secondary levels, highlighting both progress and challenges in girls’ education in India.
- Overall Enrolment Growth: The total enrolment of girls across all levels (Grades I to XII) showed a modest increase of 0.14% annually over the decade, with the index number reaching 101 in 2021-22 (base year 2012-13); this suggests a slight overall improvement in girls’ access to education.
- Primary Education (Grades I-V): Primary education saw the most substantial growth, with an annual increase of 1.14%. The index number for 2021-22 reached 109, indicating a significant improvement in girls’ access to primary education.
- Upper Primary Education (Grades VI-VIII): Enrolment at the upper primary level remained relatively stable, with a marginal annual growth rate of 0.03%. The index number for 2021-22 stood at 100, suggesting maintenance of enrolment levels but limited progress in expansion.
- Secondary Education (Grades IX-X): Secondary education experienced a slight decline, with an annual decrease of 0.56%. The index number dropped to 96, indicating challenges in retaining girls in secondary education.
- Higher Secondary Education (Grades XI-XII): The most concerning trend is observed in higher secondary education, with a substantial annual decline of 3.40%. The index number plummeted to 76, highlighting a significant issue in girls’ participation in higher levels of education.
Table 2: Girls’ Enrolment by Education Level: 2012-13 to 2021-22, All India
| Academic Year | Primary (Grades I-V) | Upper Primary
(Grades VI-VIII) |
Secondary
(Grades IX-X) |
Higher Secondary
(Grades XI-XII) |
Total Enrolment
Grades I to XII |
||||||||||
| Girls | Total | ||||||||||||||
| 2021-22 | 58324595 | 32278942 | 18456713 | 13831318 | 122891568 | 255740623 | |||||||||
| 2020-21 | 58491640 | 31889045 | 18623307 | 13068639 | 122072631 | 253804461 | |||||||||
| 2019-20 | 58434954 | 31445816 | 18392077 | 12616211 | 120889058 | 250971683 | |||||||||
| 2018-19 | 57721044 | 31107939 | 18327824 | 12324185 | 119480992 | 248338584 | |||||||||
| 2017-18 | 58792849 | 31723158 | 18308856 | 11791407 | 120616270 | 250989193 | |||||||||
| 2016-17 | 59563133 | 32073008 | 18443383 | 10744758 | 120824282 | 251336317 | |||||||||
| 2015-16 | 62249548 | 32873623 | 18597702 | 11733280 | 125454153 | 260596960 | |||||||||
| 2014-15 | 62892034 | 32663923 | 18180094 | 11061022 | 124797073 | 259470306 | |||||||||
| 2013-14 | 63836863 | 32343993 | 17639239 | 10485285 | 124305380 | 258510656 | |||||||||
Index Number: 2021-22 |
|||||||||||||||
| Base Year 2012-13 | 109 | 100 | 96 | 76 | 101 | 101 | |||||||||
Average Annual Rate of Growth (%) |
|||||||||||||||
| Period: 2012-13 to 2021-22 | 1.14 | 0.03 | -0.56 | -3.40 | 0.14 | 0.13 | |||||||||
Source: UDISE, different years.
Analysis and Implications
- Progress in Primary Education: The growth in girls’ enrolment is encouraging, suggesting improved access and potentially successful initiatives to get more girls into elementary school.
- Stagnation in Upper Primary: The minimal growth in upper primary enrolment indicates a need for targeted interventions that may ensure a smooth transition from primary to upper primary levels and address any barriers preventing further expansion.
- Decline in Secondary and Higher Secondary: The decreasing enrolment in secondary and, more drastically, in higher secondary education is alarming. This trend points to serious obstacles in retaining girls in the education system as they progress to higher grades. Possible factors could include:
- Early marriage and social pressures
- Economic constraints forcing girls to drop out
- Lack of accessible secondary and higher secondary schools
- Quality concerns in education affecting motivation to continue
- Gender Gap Implications: While the present analysis focuses solely on girls’ enrolment, the declining trend in higher grades may indicate a widening gender gap in higher education, potentially impacting women’s empowerment and workforce participation in the long term.
While India has made strides in improving access to primary education for girls, the declining enrolment in secondary and higher secondary levels presents a significant challenge. Addressing the above issues will be crucial for achieving gender equality in education and unlocking the full potential of India’s female population in the coming years. The following strategies may help improve girls’ education in India. However, the status of girls’ education must also be analysed from a different angle, as presented below.
- Strengthen retention strategies: Implement targeted programs to keep girls in the school, especially during the transition from primary to secondary & higher secondary levels of education.
- Address socio-economic barriers: Develop policies and initiatives that address the root causes of dropout rates, such as financial incentives for continuing education and awareness campaigns on the importance of girls’ education.
- Improve infrastructure: Ensure adequate and accessible secondary and higher secondary schools, particularly in rural and underserved areas.
- Enhance quality of education: Focus on improving the quality of teaching and learning experiences to maintain interest and motivation among female students.
- Conduct further research: Investigate the reasons for the decline in higher-level enrolment to inform more effective policy interventions.
The Share of Girls Enrolment
Table 3: Percentage Girls’ Enrolment by Education Level:2012-13 to 2021-22, All India
| Academic Year | Primary (I-V) | Upper Primary
(VI-VIII) |
Secondary
(IX-X) |
Higher Secondary
(XI-XII) |
Total Enrolment
Grades I to XII |
||||||||||
| %Girls in Grades I to XII | Total Enrolment | ||||||||||||||
| 2021-22 | 47.87 | 48.33 | 47.90 | 48.40 | 48.05 | 255740623 | |||||||||
| 2020-21 | 47.94 | 48.42 | 47.74 | 48.54 | 48.10 | 253804461 | |||||||||
| 2019-20 | 48.02 | 48.47 | 47.82 | 48.62 | 48.17 | 250971683 | |||||||||
| 2018-19 | 48.01 | 48.40 | 47.81 | 48.32 | 48.11 | 248338584 | |||||||||
| 2017-18 | 48.04 | 48.47 | 47.58 | 47.77 | 48.06 | 250989193 | |||||||||
| 2016-17 | 48.11 | 48.54 | 47.51 | 47.49 | 48.07 | 251336317 | |||||||||
| 2015-16 | 48.21 | 48.63 | 47.51 | 47.44 | 48.14 | 260596960 | |||||||||
| 2014-15 | 48.19 | 48.63 | 47.47 | 47.06 | 48.10 | 259470306 | |||||||||
| 2013-14 | 48.20 | 48.66 | 47.29 | 46.99 | 48.09 | 258510656 | |||||||||
Source: UDISE, different years.
Analysis of Girls’ Enrolment Percentages in Indian Education (2012-2022)
This data presented in Table 3 provides valuable insights into the gender balance in Indian education across various levels over a decade. Here’s an analysis of the key trends:
- Overall Trend: The percentage of girls enrolled across all grades (I to XII) has remained relatively stable, hovering around 48% throughout the decade. There’s a slight decrease from 48.09% in 2013-14 to 48.05% in 2021-22, indicating a marginal decline in the overall proportion of female students.
- Primary Education (Grades I-V): The percentage of girls in primary education has slightly declined over the decade. It decreased from 48.20% in 2013-14 to 47.87% in 2021-22; this suggests a slight but noticeable shift in the gender balance at the primary level.
- Upper Primary Education (Grades VI-VIII): Upper primary education shows a similar trend to primary education. The percentage decreased from 48.66% in 2013-14 to 48.33% in 2021-22. While the decline is slight, it’s consistent with the trend seen in primary education.
- Secondary Education (Grades IX-X): Secondary education presents a more positive trend. The percentage of girls increased from 47.29% in 2013-14 to 47.90% in 2021-22; this suggests improved retention of girls in secondary education over the decade.
- Higher Secondary Education (Grades XI-XII): Higher secondary education shows the most significant improvement. The percentage increased from 46.99% in 2013-14 to 48.40% in 2021-22; this is a notable positive trend, indicating better retention and participation of girls in higher levels of schooling.
Key Insights
- Closing Gender Gap in Higher Grades: The most striking observation is the improvement in girls’ representation in secondary and higher secondary education; this suggests that efforts to keep girls in school longer have been somewhat successful.
- Slight Concern in Lower Grades: While not drastic, the marginal decline in girls’ percentage in primary and upper primary levels warrants attention. It could indicate emerging challenges in ensuring equal access to primary education for girls.
- Near Gender Parity: Across all levels, the percentages are close to 48%, indicating near gender parity in enrolment; this is a positive sign of gender equality in education access.
- Consistent Total Enrolment: The total enrolment across all grades has remained relatively stable over the decade, slightly increasing from about 258 million in 2013-14 to about 255 million in 2021-22.
- Contrasting Trends: Interestingly, while the percentage of girls in higher grades improved, the absolute numbers (from the previous Table) declined; this suggests that while overall enrollment in higher grades might be decreasing, the gender balance is improving.
The above data reveals a nuanced picture of girls’ education in India. While there’s near gender parity in enrolment and improvements in higher grades, the slight declines in lower grades and overall enrolment numbers in higher grades (from the previous data) suggest a complex educational landscape. Continued focused efforts are needed to maintain and improve girls’ participation across all levels of education in India; a few such measures are presented below:
Implications and Recommendations
- Focus on Early Education: Investigate and address the factors causing the slight decline in girls’ enrolment percentages in primary and upper primary levels.
- Sustain Progress in Higher Grades: Continue and potentially expand initiatives that have contributed to improved gender balance in secondary and higher secondary education.
- Holistic Approach: While the gender balance is improving, efforts should be made to increase overall enrolment, especially in higher grades.
- Regional Analysis: Consider analysing these trends at state or district levels to identify regional disparities and tailor interventions accordingly.
- Quality of Education: Beyond enrolment, focus on ensuring quality education and equal opportunities for both genders to fully leverage improved access.
To better understand the distribution of girls’ enrolment across different levels of education, we can analyse the percentage share of each level:
Analysis of Girls’ Enrolment Distribution Across Educational Levels in India (2012-2022)This data (Table 4) provides a comprehensive view of how girls’ enrolment has been distributed across different educational levels in India over a decade. Here’s an analysis of the key trends:
Key Insights
Table 4: Percent Percent Share of Girls Enrolment at Different Levels of Education to Total Girls Enrolment (Grades I to XII) |
||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Academic
Year |
%age Primary to Total Enrolment
|
%age Upper Primary to Total Enrolment
|
%age Secondary
to Total Enrolment
|
%age to Total Enrolment
|
Total Enrolment Grades I to XII | |||||||||||||||||||
| Girls
Enrolment |
Total Enrolment | Girls Enrolment | Total Enrolment | Girls Enrolment | Total Enrolment | Girls
Enrolment |
Total Enrolment | Girls Enrolment | Total | |||||||||||||||
| 2021-22 | 47.46 | 47.64 | 26.27 | 26.12 | 15.02 | 15.07 | 11.25 | 11.18 | 122891568 | 255740623 | ||||||||||||||
| 2020-21 | 47.92 | 48.08 | 26.12 | 25.95 | 15.26 | 15.37 | 10.71 | 10.61 | 122072631 | 253804461 | ||||||||||||||
| 2019-20 | 48.34 | 48.49 | 26.01 | 25.85 | 15.21 | 15.33 | 10.44 | 10.34 | 120889058 | 250971683 | ||||||||||||||
| 2018-19 | 48.31 | 48.41 | 26.04 | 25.88 | 15.34 | 15.44 | 10.31 | 10.27 | 119480992 | 248338584 | ||||||||||||||
| 2017-18 | 48.74 | 48.76 | 26.30 | 26.08 | 15.18 | 15.33 | 9.78 | 9.83 | 120616270 | 250989193 | ||||||||||||||
| 2016-17 | 49.30 | 49.26 | 26.55 | 26.29 | 15.26 | 15.45 | 8.89 | 9.00 | 120824282 | 251336317 | ||||||||||||||
| 2015-16 | 49.62 | 49.55 | 26.20 | 25.94 | 14.82 | 15.02 | 9.35 | 9.49 | 125454153 | 260596960 | ||||||||||||||
| 2014-15 | 50.40 | 50.30 | 26.17 | 25.89 | 14.57 | 14.76 | 8.86 | 9.06 | 124797073 | 259470306 | ||||||||||||||
| 2013-14 | 51.35 | 51.23 | 26.02 | 25.71 | 14.19 | 14.43 | 8.44 | 8.63 | 124305380 | 258510656 | ||||||||||||||
| 2012-13 | 53.24 | 53.01 | 25.86 | 25.53 | 13.33 | 13.62 | 7.57 | 7.84 | 122430654 | 254275128 | ||||||||||||||
Source: UDISE, different years.
The data reveals a positive transformation in the educational landscape for girls in India over the past decade. The shift towards higher levels of education is encouraging, suggesting improved retention and progression. However, the stability in overall numbers indicates that efforts should now focus on maintaining this positive trend and ensuring quality education at all levels. The challenge lies in leveraging this improved educational attainment to enhance women’s participation in higher education and the workforce.
Implications and Recommendations
- Sustain Focus on Higher Education: Continue and potentially enhance policies that have contributed to the increased participation of girls in secondary and higher secondary education.
- Address Primary Education Decline: While the shift towards higher education is positive, ensuring that the decline in primary education’s share is not due to decreased access or enrolment at this crucial level is crucial.
- Transition Support: Develop targeted programs to support girls’ transition from one educational level to the next, particularly from primary to upper primary and from secondary to higher secondary.
- Quality of Education: With improved retention, focus on enhancing the quality of education at all levels to ensure that increased enrolment translates to better learning outcomes
- Vocational and Skill-based Education: To enhance employability, consider integrating vocational and skill-based education, particularly at the secondary and higher secondary levels.
- Regional Analysis: Conduct a similar analysis at state and district levels to identify and address regional disparities in girls’ educational progression.
The trends in girls’ enrolment and its share of total enrolment presented above will remain unfinished unless the same is linked to the corresponding child population, which can be examined through the Net Enrolment Ratio presented below.
Analysis of Net Enrolment Ratios (NER) by Gender and Educational Level
The Net Enrolment Ratio (NER) provides a more accurate picture of age-appropriate enrolment for girls at different levels of education (Table 5). Let us analyse Net Enrolment Ratios (NER) for various educational levels in India for 2021-22 in light of the previous discussion presented above and comment on the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 goal of achieving a 100% Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) at secondary level by 2030.
Table 5: Net Enrolment Ratio (NER) by Education Level: 2021-22
|
Educational Level
|
Net Enrolment Ratio |
||
| Girls | Boys | Overall | |
| Primary (6-10 years) | 90.0 | 87.3 | 88.6 |
| Upper Primary (11-13) | 71.7 | 71.0 | 71.53 |
| Elementary (6-13) | 91.5 | 89.7 | 90.5 |
| Secondary (14-15) | 48.0 | 47.9 | 47.9 |
| Higher Secondary (16-17) | 35.0 | 33.5 | 34.2 |
| Source: UDISE, 2021-22. | |||
- Primary Education (6-10 years): Girls’ NER: 90.0%, Boys’ NER: 87.3% and Overall NER: 88.6%
Girls show a higher NER at the primary level, outperforming boys by 2.7 percentage points; this is a positive indicator of girls’ access to primary education and aligns with the earlier data showing improved enrolment for girls at this level.
- Upper Primary Education (11-13 years): Girls’ NER: 71.7%, Boys’ NER: 71.0% and Overall NER: 71.53%
Girls maintain a slight edge over boys at the upper primary level, though the gap narrows; this suggests relatively equal access to upper primary education for both genders.
- Elementary Education (6-13 years): Girls’ NER: 91.5%, Boys’ NER: 89.7% and Overall NER: 90.5%
The combined elementary level shows girls maintaining their advantage, with a 1.8 percentage point lead over boys; this is encouraging for gender equity in primary education.
- Secondary Education (14-15 years): Girls’ NER: 48.0%, Boys’ NER: 47.9% and Overall NER: 47.9%
The NER drops significantly for both genders at the secondary level, but girls maintain a slight edge. This sharp decline from elementary to secondary education is concerning.
- Higher Secondary Education (16-17 years): Girls’ NER: 35.0%, Boys’ NER: 33.5% and Overall NER: 34.2%
The NER further drops at the higher secondary level, but girls outperform boys; this aligns with our earlier observations of improved retention of girls in higher grades.
Key Insights and Implications
- Girls’ Outperformance: Girls consistently show higher NERs across all educational levels; this is a positive trend for gender equality in education and suggests that efforts to promote girls’ education have been practical.
- Significant Drop in Secondary and Higher Secondary: There’s a dramatic decrease in NER from elementary to secondary and higher secondary levels for both genders; this indicates a severe challenge in retaining students, especially as they transition to secondary education.
- Retention Challenges: The sharp decline in NER at higher levels suggests significant barriers to continued education, including economic factors, accessibility issues, or social norms.
- Alignment with Overall Enrolment Data: This NER data aligns with our earlier analysis, which shows improved retention of girls in higher grades despite lower enrolment numbers.
- Gap Between NER and Universal Enrolment: Even at the primary level, where NER is highest, there’s still a gap of about 10% in achieving universal enrolment.
NEP 2020 Goal of 100% GER by 2030
The National Education Policy 2020’s aim to achieve a 100% Gross Enrolment Ratio by 2030 is ambitious, given the current NER figures. Here are some considerations:
- Current Status vs. Goal: The highest NER is at the elementary level (90.5% overall), closest to the 100% target. However, significant gaps remain, especially at secondary (47.9%) and higher secondary (34.2%) levels.
Challenges
- The sharp decline in NER at secondary and higher secondary levels indicates significant hurdles in achieving the 100% GER goal across all levels.
- Addressing the reasons for dropouts and non-enrollment will be crucial.
- Focus Areas
- While efforts to maintain and improve girls’ enrolment should continue, there’s a need to boost boys’ enrolment, particularly at the primary level.
- Significant interventions are needed at secondary and higher secondary levels for both genders.
- Strategies Needed
- Improving infrastructure and accessibility of secondary and higher secondary schools.
- Addressing economic barriers through scholarships or financial incentives.
- Tackling social norms that may prevent continued education, especially for girls and
- Enhancing the quality and relevance of education to encourage retention.
- Monitoring Progress
- Regular tracking of both NER and GER will be essential to measure progress towards the NEP 2020 goal.
While the data shows encouraging trends in girls’ education, particularly their higher NERs across all levels, significant challenges remain in achieving the NEP 2020 goal of 100% GER by 2030. The most pressing issue is the sharp decline in secondary and higher secondary enrollment for both genders. Achieving the NEP goal will require substantial, targeted efforts to address barriers to education, improve retention rates, and ensure access to quality education at all levels. The focus should be on maintaining the positive trends in girls’ education while addressing the gaps in boys’ enrollment and overall participation in secondary and higher education.
Further, it has been observed that despite girls performing better at various levels of school education, in a few states, they are a bit behind their counterparts boys, details of which are presented in Table presented below.
Analysis of the Gender Parity Index (GPI) Across Indian States
Table 6 presents detailed Gender Parity Index (GPI) data for different educational levels across Indian States & Union Territories for the year 2021-22, and the same is briefly analyzed, highlighting the states that need improvement at various levels.
- Primary Education (Grades 1-5): Most states show a GPI close to or above 1, indicating good gender parity or a slight advantage for girls. States needing improvement: Ladakh (0.88), Sikkim (0.94), and Lakshadweep (1.03, but drops significantly in upper grades).
- Upper Primary Education (Grades 6-8): More variation is seen at this level. States needing improvement: Lakshadweep (0.82), Andhra Pradesh (0.95), Rajasthan (0.96), Madhya Pradesh (0.98), Maharashtra (0.98) and Telangana (0.98).
- Elementary Education (Grades 1-8): This combines primary and upper primary, smoothing out some disparities. States needing improvement: Ladakh (0.89), Lakshadweep (0.94), Sikkim (0.96) and Andhra Pradesh (0.98).
- Secondary Education (Grades 9-10): More states show disparities at this level. States needing significant improvement: Rajasthan (0.92), Uttar Pradesh (0.92), Gujarat (0.94), Madhya Pradesh (0.96), Lakshadweep (0.96) and Haryana (0.97).
- Higher Secondary Education (Grades 11-12): The most significant disparities are seen at this level. States needing significant improvement: Rajasthan (0.90), Uttar Pradesh (0.92), Lakshadweep (0.92), Gujarat (0.98), Madhya Pradesh (0.98) and Maharashtra (0.98).
Key Observations
- Consistently Underperforming States: Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, and Gujarat show consistent gender disparities favoring males, especially in higher grades. Madhya Pradesh also needs improvement, particularly at the secondary and higher secondary levels.
- States with Fluctuating Performance: Lakshadweep shows good parity in primary but significant disparities in later stages, and Andhra Pradesh performs well in higher secondary but needs improvement in earlier stages.
- High Performing States: Meghalaya, West Bengal, and Assam consistently show GPIs favoring females across all levels. Chandigarh and Delhi also perform well across all levels.
- The Trend of Decreasing Parity in Higher Grades: Many states show decreasing GPIs as the education level increases, indicating challenges in retaining girls in higher education.
- Regional Patterns: Northern and central states generally show lower GPIs, especially in higher grades. Northeastern states tend to have higher GPIs favoring females.
Recommendations
While India shows relatively good gender parity in education, significant state-level variations exist. Focused efforts are needed, particularly in states consistently showing low GPIs across multiple education levels. The challenge lies in maintaining and improving parity as students progress to higher levels of education, especially in states where cultural and socio-economic factors may pose barriers to girls’ continued education. Here are some of the suggested recommendations:
- Targeted Interventions: States like Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh, all big states, need comprehensive interventions across all education levels to improve gender parity.
- Focus on Transitions: Many states must maintain parity as students transition to secondary and higher secondary levels.
- Learn from Success: States with consistently high GPIs could provide valuable insights for policy formulation in underperforming states.
- Address Cultural Factors: In states with persistent low GPIs, addressing underlying cultural and socio-economic factors that hinder girls’ education is crucial.
- Monitoring and Evaluation: Regular monitoring of GPI trends, especially in underperforming states, is essential to track progress and adjust interventions as needed.
Attention must be paid to the above suggestions while formulating annual plans under Samagra Shiksha. States must thoroughly analyze data and identify the districts and, within the district, blocks that need immediate attention to adopt appropriate strategies to improve girls’ education.
Table 6: Gender Parity Index (GPI) of GER by Level of School Education, 2021-22
|
India/State/UT |
Gender Parity Index (GPI) |
||||
| Primary
(Grades 1 to 5) |
Upper Primary
(Grades 6-8) |
Elementary (Grades 1-8) |
Secondary (Grades 9-10) |
Higher Secondary (Grades 11-12) | |
| India | 1.03 | 1.0 | 1.02 | 1.0 | 1.02 |
| Andaman and Nicobar Islands | 1.05 | 1.02 | 1.04 | 1.12 | 1.13 |
| Andhra Pradesh | 1.0 | 0.95 | 0.98 | 0.98 | 1.06 |
| Arunachal Pradesh | 1.01 | 1.07 | 1.03 | 1.05 | 1.09 |
| Assam | 1.06 | 1.1 | 1.07 | 1.2 | 1.11 |
| Bihar | 1.03 | 1.03 | 1.02 | 1.06 | 1.02 |
| Chandigarh | 1.11 | 1.13 | 1.12 | 1.12 | 1.17 |
| Chhattisgarh | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.08 | 1.17 |
| Dadra and Nagar Haveli and D & D
Daman and Diu |
1.05 |
1.04 |
1.05 |
1.1 |
1.58 |
| Delhi | 1.07 | 1.03 | 1.05 | 1.02 | 1.09 |
| Goa | 1.05 | 1.03 | 1.04 | 1.06 | 1.07 |
| Gujarat | 1.06 | 1.0 | 1.04 | 0.94 | 0.98 |
| Haryana | 1.01 | 0.99 | 1.0 | 0.97 | 1.01 |
| Himachal Pradesh | 1.01 | 1.03 | 1.02 | 1.01 | 1.03 |
| Jammu and Kashmir | 1.01 | 1.07 | 1.04 | 1.02 | 0.99 |
| Jharkhand | 1.01 | 1.02 | 1.01 | 1.06 | 1.07 |
| Karnataka | 1.0 | 0.99 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.08 |
| Kerala | 0.99 | 0.99 | 0.99 | 0.99 | 1.08 |
| Ladakh | 0.88 | 0.93 | 0.89 | 1.01 | 1.09 |
| Lakshadweep | 1.03 | 0.82 | 0.94 | 0.96 | 0.92 |
| Madhya Pradesh | 1.0 | 0.98 | 0.99 | 0.96 | 0.98 |
| Maharashtra | 1.05 | 0.98 | 1.02 | 0.98 | 0.98 |
| Manipur | 1.04 | 1.05 | 1.04 | 1.04 | 1.0 |
| Meghalaya | 1.04 | 1.16 | 1.07 | 1.24 | 1.34 |
| Mizoram | 1.0 | 1.02 | 1.01 | 1.1 | 1.15 |
| Nagaland | 1.06 | 1.1 | 1.07 | 1.16 | 1.18 |
| Odisha | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.01 | 1.09 |
| Puducherry | 1.02 | 1.02 | 1.02 | 1.08 | 1.13 |
| Punjab | 0.99 | 1.02 | 1.0 | 1.01 | 1.02 |
| Rajasthan | 1.03 | 0.96 | 1.0 | 0.92 | 0.9 |
| Sikkim | 0.94 | 1.01 | 0.96 | 1.07 | 1.27 |
| Tamil Nadu | 1.02 | 0.99 | 1.01 | 1.0 | 1.11 |
| Telangana | 1.01 | 0.98 | 1.0 | 1.01 | 1.06 |
| Tripura | 1.04 | 1.04 | 1.04 | 1.08 | 1.15 |
| Uttar Pradesh | 1.04 | 1.02 | 1.04 | 0.92 | 0.92 |
| Uttarakhand | 1.05 | 1.02 | 1.04 | 1.02 | 1.04 |
| West Bengal | 1.01 | 1.02 | 1.01 | 1.12 | 1.31 |
Source: UDISE+ 2021-22. Note: A GPI of 1 indicates parity between females and males. Values less than 1 indicate a disparity in favour of males, while values greater than 1 indicate a gap in favour of females.
Status of Marginalized Communities
UDISE+ 2021-22 data shows that at the elementary level, the GER for SC and ST girls is higher than that for girls from the general category; this is a positive trend, indicating that efforts to improve access and enrollment for marginalized communities have had some success (Table 7). Further, it is observed that while the GER remains higher for SC and ST girls compared to the general category at the secondary level, the gap narrows significantly. The GER for all three groups drops compared to the elementary level, suggesting challenges in retaining students, especially from marginalized communities, as they transition to secondary education. At the higher secondary level, the GER for all groups decreases further. However, the decline is more pronounced for ST girls, who have the lowest GER among the three categories, which indicates that girls from Scheduled Tribes face the most significant barriers to accessing and continuing higher secondary education.
Table 7: Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) for Girls by Social Category (2021-22)
| Level | Scheduled Castes Girls | Scheduled Tribes Girls | General Girls |
| Elementary | 111.0 | 103.3 | 101.1 |
| Secondary | 85.6 | 79.2 | 79.4 |
| Higher Secondary | 63.7 | 53.6 | 58.2 |
Source: UIDSEPlus 2021-22.NER for SC & ST students is not available.
The higher GER for SC and ST girls at the elementary and secondary levels suggests that affirmative action policies and targeted interventions have been somewhat successful in improving access to education for marginalized communities. The sharp decline in GER as students move from elementary to secondary and higher secondary levels concerns all social categories, but it is more pronounced for ST girls, which points to significant barriers in retention and progression for these students. The lower GER for ST girls, especially at the higher secondary level, suggests the need for more focused interventions to address the specific challenges faced by this community in accessing and continuing education. It is essential to ensure that secondary and higher secondary schools are accessible and well-equipped, particularly in areas with high ST and SC populations. In addition, another option is to enhance scholarships, stipends, and other financial support schemes to alleviate the economic barriers faced by girls from marginalized communities. Regularly monitoring the GER data, disaggregated by social category and gender, may help identify and address emerging disparities promptly. Policymakers should adopt an intersectional approach that considers girls’ unique challenges from different social backgrounds, not just gender alone.
Importance of Efficiency Indicators in Achieving Universalization of Girls’ Education
As of now, we have viewed girls’ enrolment, NER, and its share in the total enrolment and education status of SC and ST children at different levels of education. However, it is observed that enrolling children is a necessary condition but not a sufficient condition under which it is to ensure that each child whosoever enters into the system must continue from one grade to another and also transit from one level of education to another and complete an educational level successfully. Given this, we now analyze flow rates, particularly dropout and retention rates, as well as transition rates, particularly in the case of girls, which also shows the retaining capacity of the system (Table 8).
Table 8: Efficiency Indicators: Dropout, Transition & Retention Rates at all-India level, 2021-22
| Indicator | Boys | Girls | Total | 2019-20 | 2020-21 |
| Dropout Rate | |||||
| Primary | 1.6 | 1.4 | 1.5 | 1.5 | 0.8 |
| Upper Primary | 2.7 | 3.3 | 3.0 | 2.6 | 1.9 |
| Secondary | 13.0 | 12.3 | 12.6 | 16.1 | 14.6 |
| Transition Rate | |||||
| Primary to Upper Primary | 93.1 | 93.4 | 93.2 | 92.8 | 92.1 |
| Elementary to Secondary | 89.7 | 87.8 | 88.8 | 91.4 | 91.3 |
| Secondary to Higher Secondary | 77.6 | 79.3 | 78.4 | 71.6 | 73.3 |
| Retention Rate | |||||
| Primary (1 to 5) | 94.9 | 96.0 | 95.4 | 87.0 | 95.3 |
| Elementary (1 to 8) | 80.5 | 82.1 | 81.2 | 74.6 | 80.9 |
| Secondary (1 to 10) | 64.9 | 64.5 | 64.7 | 59.6 | 61.5 |
| Higher Secondary (1 to12) | 43.1 | 44.2 | 43.6 | 40.2 | 42.8 |
Source: UDISE+, different years.
Below, we highlight some of the essential points concerning dropout, retention, and transition rates:
- The dropout rate for girls at the primary level is significantly low (1.4 percent), particularly at the primary level. However, the higher dropout rate at the upper primary and secondary levels remains a concern but is crucial for ensuring girls’ continuous participation in the education system.
- The transition rates for girls indicate relatively stable progression from one level to the next, though a slight decline is observed at the secondary to the higher secondary stage. Maintaining high transition rates for girls, particularly from elementary to secondary & secondary to higher secondary levels, will help achieve universal access to education.
- The retention rates for girls show a significant drop as they move from primary to higher levels of education, with the sharpest decline observed at the secondary and higher secondary stages. Improving retention rates for girls, with a focus on secondary and higher secondary stages, is essential for achieving the target of universal completion of 12 years of schooling.
- The data on girls’ efficiency indicators can guide the formulation of targeted policies & programs to improve the female student population’s access, retention, and completion rates.
If initiated, The following measures may further help improve girls’ education. Addressing these gaps is crucial in achieving the goal of universalizing girls’ education in the country.
- Invest in developing safe and accessible school facilities, especially in rural & remote areas, to encourage girls’ enrollment and retention.
- Enhance scholarship schemes, stipends, and other financial support to address the economic barriers that may force girls to drop out.
- Incorporate gender-responsive teaching methods and content to create a more inclusive & empowering learning environment for girls.
- Work closely with local communities to address social and cultural norms that may hinder girls’ education and encourage their continued participation.
- Regularly track and analyze girls’ efficiency indicators, disaggregated by location and socio-economic status, to promptly identify and address emerging challenges.
- Explore using digital tools and platforms to improve access to education, especially in remote areas, & enhance the quality of teaching & learning for girls.
The Critical Need for Increased Investment in Education
Numerous commissions, committees, and policies on education in India have consistently recommended allocating 6 of GDP to education. However, the current investment remains significantly below this target. Increasing education investment to 6 of GDP could have transformative effects on the education system, particularly for girls’ education:
- Improved Infrastructure: Additional funds could be used to build more schools, especially in underserved areas, reducing the distance girls need to travel for education.
- Enhanced Teacher Training: Increased investment could support better pre-service and in-service teacher training, improving all students’ education quality.
- Targeted Interventions for Marginalized Communities: Additional resources could fund scholarships, transportation, and other support systems to keep girls from SC, ST, and minority communities in school.
- Technology Integration: Increased funding could improve access to digital learning resources, benefiting girls in remote areas.
- Expanded Early Childhood Education: Additional investment could strengthen early childhood education programs, ensuring girls start formal schooling well-prepared.
- Improved Learning Outcomes: More resources for learning materials, remedial programs, and innovative teaching methods could help address the gender gap in learning outcomes, particularly in STEM subjects.
- Strengthened Secondary Education: Increased funding could support the expansion of secondary education infrastructure and programs, addressing the significant drop in girls’ enrollment at this level.
Policy Recommendations
- Focus on Age-Appropriate Enrollment: Strengthen early childhood education and implement targeted outreach programs to ensure all 6-year-old girls are enrolled in Grade 1.
- Enhance Learning Outcomes: Develop interventions based on NAS and ASER findings, particularly in mathematics and science for girls.
- Bridge the Secondary Education Gap: Expand secondary school infrastructure and provide targeted financial incentives for girls’ secondary education completion, focusing on SC, ST, and minority communities.
- Increase Female Teacher Recruitment: Set targets for female teacher recruitment, particularly in rural and conservative areas.
- Address Intersectional Disadvantages: Develop targeted programs for girls from marginalized communities.
- Enhance Gender-Sensitive Pedagogy: Revise curricula and textbooks to eliminate gender stereotypes and provide gender-sensitivity training for all teachers and school administrators.
- Increase Education Investment: Develop a roadmap to increase education investment to 6% of GDP.
- Strengthen Data Collection and Monitoring: Improve data collection mechanisms to track enrolment, retention, and learning outcomes for girls from different social categories.
Concluding Observations
The comprehensive analysis of the data and information provided presents a nuanced picture of girls’ education in India. While notable improvements have been made in certain aspects, significant challenges that require sustained and targeted efforts remain.
- Progress in Access and Enrollment
- The data shows generally high Gross Enrollment Ratios (GER) and Net Enrollment Ratios (NER) for girls, particularly at the primary and elementary levels.
- Data suggests that efforts to improve access and enrollment for girls, such as infrastructure development, scholarship schemes, and awareness campaigns, have yielded positive results.
- Declining Retention and Transition
- A significant concern is the sharp decline in girls’ enrollment and retention as they progress from primary to secondary and higher secondary education.
- The higher dropout rates, especially at the upper primary and secondary levels, and the decreasing transition rates indicate significant barriers to keeping girls engaged in the education system.
- Socio-economic Disparities
- The analysis of GER by social category highlights the intersectionality of gender and social identity, with girls from Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes communities facing the most significant challenges.
- Addressing the unique barriers marginalized communities face, such as accessibility, affordability, and socio-cultural norms, will ensure equitable access to education.
- Learning Outcomes and Gender Gaps
- While the data provided does not directly address learning outcomes, the persistent gender gaps observed in subjects like mathematics and science suggest the need to focus on improving the quality of education and addressing the underlying factors that contribute to these disparities.
- Importance of Efficiency Indicators
- The analysis of efficiency indicators, such as dropout rates, transition rates, and retention rates, highlights the critical areas that require focused interventions to achieve the goal of universalization of education.
- Monitoring these indicators, particularly for girls, can help identify challenges and guide the development of targeted policies and programs.
- Timeliness of Data and Reporting
- As observed in the analysis, the significant time lag in the availability of school education data is a concern that affects the ability to make informed, timely decisions and track progress effectively.
- Strengthening data collection and reporting systems can enhance the timeliness and usefulness of this crucial information.
- Need for Increased Investment
- The analysis underscores the critical need to increase investment in education, as recommended by various commissions and policies, to address the multifaceted challenges in girls’ education.
- Allocating 6% of GDP to education can have a transformative impact on infrastructure, teacher training, targeted interventions, and technology integration – all essential for improving girls’ access, retention, and learning outcomes.
In conclusion, the analysis highlights the progress and persistent challenges in girls’ education in India. Addressing the barriers to retention and transition, particularly at the secondary and higher secondary levels, while tackling the socio-economic disparities and improving learning outcomes, is crucial for achieving the goal of equitable-universal access to quality education for all girls in the country. A comprehensive approach, supported by increased and well-targeted investment, can unlock the immense potential of India’s female population and contribute to the nation’s holistic development.
FAQs on Girls Education in India
References
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