State-wise Muslim School Education UDISEPlus 2023-24
Regional Disparities in Muslim Educational Participation
A State-wise Analysis of School Education based on UDISEPlus 2023-24 Data
Abstract
This brief note examines Muslim minority enrollment patterns across states of India using UDISEPlus 2023-24 data compared with 2011 Census population figures. The analysis reveals substantial interstate variations in enrollment and retention rates from primary through higher secondary education. While the national Muslim enrollment (15.7%) exceeds the population share (14.2%), this masks significant regional differences, with some states demonstrating exemplary performance and others showing concerning patterns of attrition. These findings underscore the need for state-specific educational policies to address regional disparities in Muslim educational participation.
Introduction
Educational inclusion of minorities represents a critical dimension of equitable development in diverse societies. In India, where Muslims constitute the largest minority group at 14.2% of the population, understanding state-specific patterns of educational participation provides essential insights for policy formulation. This analysis examines enrollment patterns across all levels of school education to identify regional success stories, challenges, and potential intervention points.
Methodology
This study analyses UDISEPlus 2023-24 enrollment data across four educational levels (primary, upper primary, secondary, and higher secondary) and compares these with population data from the 2011 Census. The analysis focuses mainly on interstate variations in enrollment percentages, retention rates, and gender dynamics.
Regional Patterns and State Performance
Southern Region: Models of Success
Kerala emerges as the standout performer in Muslim educational inclusion nationwide. With Muslims constituting 26.6% of its population, the state demonstrates exceptional enrollment rates across all educational levels (primary: 40.9%, higher secondary: 33.4%, overall: 38.7%); this represents an enrollment-to-population ratio of 1.45, the highest among significant states. The state also maintains strong retention, with higher secondary enrollment reaching 81.7% of primary levels. Gender patterns show balanced participation, with minimal differences between boys and girls.
| State-wise %age of Muslim Minority Enrolment to Total Enrolment, UDISEPlus 2023-24 | ||||||||||
|
India/State |
%age Muslim to Total Population 2011 Census |
Percentage of Muslim Minority Enrolment to Total Enrolment | ||||||||
| Primary(1 to 5) | Upper Primary(6 to 8) | Elementary (1 to 8) | ||||||||
| Boys | Girls | Total | Boys | Girls | Total | Boys | Girls |
Total |
||
| India | 14.225 | 17.2 | 17.7 | 17.4 | 14.8 | 16.0 | 15.4 | 16.3 | 17.0 | 16.7 |
| A & N Islands | 8.517 | 11.1 | 11.3 | 11.2 | 10.0 | 9.8 | 9.9 | 10.6 | 10.7 | 10.6 |
| Andhra Pradesh | 9.556 | 9.5 | 9.5 | 9.5 | 8.6 | 8.9 | 8.8 | 9.2 | 9.3 | 9.2 |
| Arunachal Pradesh | 1.955 | 2.3 | 2.0 | 2.2 | 1.7 | 1.4 | 1.5 | 2.1 | 1.8 | 1.9 |
| Assam | 34.223 | 45.3 | 45.6 | 45.4 | 39.4 | 43.8 | 41.7 | 43.3 | 44.9 | 44.1 |
| Bihar | 16.866 | 19.7 | 21.1 | 20.4 | 17.6 | 19.5 | 18.6 | 19.0 | 20.5 | 19.8 |
| Chandigarh | 4.874 | 6.3 | 6.3 | 6.3 | 5.6 | 5.7 | 5.7 | 6.0 | 6.0 | 6.0 |
| Chhattisgarh | 2.016 | 2.0 | 1.9 | 1.9 | 1.8 | 1.7 | 1.7 | 1.9 | 1.8 | 1.9 |
| D & N and | 3.76 | 6.0 | 5.7 | 5.9 | 5.7 | 5.1 | 5.4 | 5.9 | 5.5 | 5.7 |
| D and D | 7.925 | |||||||||
| Delhi | 12.859 | 14.5 | 15.8 | 15.1 | 13.5 | 15.8 | 14.6 | 14.1 | 15.8 | 14.9 |
| Goa | 8.335 | 13.9 | 13.3 | 13.6 | 12.6 | 12.9 | 12.7 | 13.4 | 13.1 | 13.3 |
| Gujarat | 9.674 | 11.2 | 11.8 | 11.5 | 10.6 | 11.2 | 10.9 | 11.0 | 11.5 | 11.2 |
| Haryana | 7.027 | 11.2 | 11.7 | 11.4 | 9.8 | 9.9 | 9.8 | 10.6 | 11.0 | 10.8 |
| Himachal Pradesh | 2.183 | 3.1 | 3.1 | 3.1 | 2.6 | 2.5 | 2.6 | 2.9 | 2.8 | 2.9 |
| Jammu and Kashmir | 68.314 | 69.7 | 71.0 | 70.3 | 64.9 | 67.3 | 66.1 | 68.0 | 69.7 | 68.8 |
| Jharkhand | 14.532 | 16.1 | 16.9 | 16.5 | 14.9 | 16.1 | 15.5 | 15.7 | 16.6 | 16.1 |
| Karnataka | 12.919 | 17.3 | 17.7 | 17.5 | 15.8 | 16.2 | 16.0 | 16.8 | 17.2 | 17.0 |
| Kerala | 26.562 | 40.9 | 40.9 | 40.9 | 38.7 | 39.0 | 38.9 | 40.1 | 40.2 | 40.1 |
| Ladakh | 58.5 | 58.6 | 58.5 | 58.5 | 57.9 | 58.2 | 58.5 | 58.4 | 58.4 | |
| Lakshadweep | 96.58 | 99.7 | 99.7 | 99.7 | 99.7 | 99.8 | 99.7 | 99.7 | 99.7 | 99.7 |
| Madhya Pradesh | 6.574 | 6.6 | 6.7 | 6.6 | 5.8 | 6.2 | 6.0 | 6.3 | 6.5 | 6.4 |
| Maharashtra | 11.543 | 15.0 | 15.5 | 15.2 | 13.3 | 14.2 | 13.7 | 14.3 | 15.0 | 14.6 |
| Manipur | 8.398 | 10.1 | 10.3 | 10.2 | 8.1 | 8.6 | 8.4 | 9.5 | 9.7 | 9.6 |
| Meghalaya | 4.395 | 4.0 | 4.0 | 4.0 | 4.3 | 4.2 | 4.2 | 4.1 | 4.1 | 4.1 |
| Mizoram | 1.352 | 0.9 | 0.8 | 0.8 | 0.6 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.8 | 0.7 | 0.7 |
| Nagaland | 2.475 | 7.5 | 7.3 | 7.4 | 3.9 | 4.0 | 4.0 | 6.3 | 6.1 | 6.2 |
| Odisha | 2.172 | 2.6 | 2.6 | 2.6 | 2.2 | 2.3 | 2.3 | 2.5 | 2.5 | 2.5 |
| Puducherry | 6.054 | 9.1 | 8.8 | 9.0 | 8.2 | 8.4 | 8.3 | 8.7 | 8.6 | 8.7 |
| Punjab | 1.93 | 3.4 | 3.4 | 3.4 | 2.5 | 2.7 | 2.6 | 3.0 | 3.1 | 3.1 |
| Rajasthan | 9.067 | 7.8 | 8.1 | 7.9 | 6.0 | 6.4 | 6.2 | 7.1 | 7.5 | 7.3 |
| Sikkim | 1.616 | 3.3 | 3.2 | 3.3 | 2.3 | 2.1 | 2.2 | 2.9 | 2.8 | 2.9 |
| Tamil Nadu | 5.862 | 7.3 | 7.5 | 7.4 | 7.0 | 7.2 | 7.1 | 7.2 | 7.4 | 7.3 |
| Telangana | 16.0 | 16.5 | 16.2 | 14.9 | 15.8 | 15.3 | 15.6 | 16.2 | 15.9 | |
| Tripura | 8.602 | 11.7 | 11.7 | 11.7 | 9.3 | 10.8 | 10.1 | 10.8 | 11.4 | 11.1 |
| Uttar Pradesh | 19.26 | 19.6 | 19.8 | 19.7 | 15.5 | 16.4 | 15.9 | 18.2 | 18.6 | 18.4 |
| Uttarakhand | 13.948 | 19.8 | 20.1 | 20.0 | 14.2 | 15.8 | 15.0 | 17.8 | 18.5 | 18.1 |
| West Bengal | 27.011 | 37.9 | 38.3 | 38.1 | 35.5 | 36.6 | 36.0 | 37.0 | 37.7 | 37.3 |
Karnataka follows with overall Muslim enrollment (16.1%) exceeding its population share (12.9%), though with more pronounced educational attrition than Kerala. The secondary level maintains strong representation (15.4%) but drops noticeably at higher secondary (11.8%), suggesting challenges in the final transition. Gender analysis reveals a consistent female advantage across all educational levels.
Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh show more modest Muslim enrollment relative to population but maintain relatively stable representation across educational levels, indicating effective retention policies.
Eastern Region: High Representation with Variable Retention
West Bengal demonstrates strong Muslim representation, with overall enrollment (36.3%) significantly exceeding population share (27.0%). While the state shows some attrition across levels (primary: 38.1%, higher secondary: 31.5%), it maintains an impressive 82.7% retention rate from primary to higher secondary. A notable feature is the substantial gender gap favoring girls at higher secondary (female: 35.5%, male: 26.4%), among the largest nationwide.
Assam presents a mixed picture with very high enrollment at primary levels (45.4%) compared to population share (34.2%) but significant attrition at higher levels (higher secondary: 27.4%); this represents a retention rate of just 60.4% from primary to higher secondary, suggesting substantial barriers to educational progression despite strong initial participation. The state also exhibits pronounced gender disparities favouring girls, particularly at secondary levels.
Bihar shows moderate overrepresentation, with overall enrollment (18.9%) exceeding population share (16.9%), but faces challenges in retention with higher secondary enrollment (14.2%), representing a 30.4% drop from primary levels (20.4%). Gender patterns consistently favour girls across all educational stages.
Northern Region: Concerning Patterns of Attrition
The northern states present the most concerning patterns of Muslim educational retention. Uttar Pradesh, with India’s largest Muslim population in absolute terms, shows overall enrollment (17.1%) below population share (19.3%). More troubling is the severe attrition across levels, with higher secondary enrollment (12.4%) representing a 37.1% drop from primary levels (19.7%).
Rajasthan demonstrates alarming patterns of both underrepresentation and attrition. With overall enrollment (6.5%) well below population share (9.1%), the state shows a severe decline across levels. Higher secondary enrollment (3.8%) represents less than half of already low primary enrollment (7.9%), indicating serious barriers to educational progression for Muslim students.
Haryana presents perhaps the most concerning case, with higher secondary enrollment (3.8%) representing just one-third of primary enrollment (11.4%). This 66.7% decline across educational levels is among the steepest nationwide, suggesting critical failures in promoting educational retention among Muslims. Uniquely, Haryana also shows a gender pattern reversal, with girls’ advantage at primary levels shifting to boys’ advantage at higher secondary.
|
|
%age Muslim to Total Population 2011 Census |
Percentage of Muslim Minority Enrolment to Total Enrolment | ||||||||
| Secondary (9-10) | Higher Secondary | Primary to Higher | ||||||||
| India/State | (11-12) |
Secondary |
||||||||
| Boys | Girls | Total | Boys | Girls | Total | Boys | Girls | Total | ||
| India | 14.225 | 13.5 | 15.2 | 14.3 | 10.9 | 13 | 11.9 | 15.3 | 16.3 | 15.7 |
| A & N Islands | 8.517 | 9.3 | 9.1 | 9.2 | 8.4 | 8.8 | 8.6 | 10.0 | 10.1 | 10 |
| Andhra Pradesh | 9.556 | 8.3 | 8.5 | 8.4 | 7.1 | 7.0 | 7.0 | 8.8 | 8.8 | 8.8 |
| Arunachal Pradesh | 1.955 | 1.4 | 1.5 | 1.5 | 1.2 | 1.2 | 1.2 | 1.9 | 1.7 | 1.8 |
| Assam | 34.223 | 32.2 | 39.2 | 36 | 25.8 | 28.8 | 27.4 | 40.5 | 42.8 | 41.6 |
| Bihar | 16.866 | 14.3 | 17.4 | 15.9 | 13.1 | 15.3 | 14.2 | 18.0 | 19.7 | 18.9 |
| Chandigarh | 4.874 | 4.8 | 5.4 | 5.1 | 3.1 | 3.7 | 3.4 | 5.3 | 5.5 | 5.4 |
| Chhattisgarh | 2.016 | 1.6 | 1.7 | 1.6 | 1.6 | 1.6 | 1.6 | 1.8 | 1.8 | 1.8 |
| D & N and | 3.76 | |||||||||
| D and D | 7.925 | 5.3 | 4.7 | 5 | 3.4 | 4.2 | 3.8 | 5.6 | 5.2 | 5.4 |
| Delhi | 12.859 | 12.3 | 14.9 | 13.5 | 9.6 | 12.9 | 11.2 | 13.1 | 15.2 | 14.1 |
| Goa | 8.335 | 12.2 | 12.5 | 12.3 | 9.1 | 10.0 | 9.6 | 12.6 | 12.6 | 12.6 |
| Gujarat | 9.674 | 9.6 | 9.8 | 9.7 | 7.2 | 8 | 7.6 | 10.4 | 10.9 | 10.6 |
| Haryana | 7.027 | 6.2 | 5.0 | 5.7 | 4.4 | 3.2 | 3.8 | 9.1 | 9 | 9.1 |
| Himachal Pradesh | 2.183 | 2.2 | 2.2 | 2.2 | 1.5 | 1.5 | 1.5 | 2.6 | 2.5 | 2.6 |
| Jammu and Kashmir | 68.314 | 63.4 | 65.5 | 64.4 | 64.7 | 66.1 | 65.4 | 66.9 | 68.7 | 67.8 |
| Jharkhand | 14.532 | 10.8 | 12.8 | 11.8 | 8 | 9.4 | 8.7 | 14.3 | 15.3 | 14.8 |
| Karnataka | 12.919 | 15 | 15.8 | 15.4 | 10.8 | 12.6 | 11.8 | 15.9 | 16.4 | 16.1 |
| Kerala | 26.562 | 37.9 | 38 | 38 | 33 | 33.7 | 33.4 | 38.6 | 38.8 | 38.7 |
| Ladakh | 59.7 | 58.2 | 58.9 | 63.7 | 64.6 | 64.2 | 59.2 | 58.9 | 59 | |
| Lakshadweep | 96.58 | 99.8 | 99.6 | 99.7 | 99.4 | 99.6 | 99.5 | 99.7 | 99.7 | 99.7 |
| Madhya Pradesh | 6.574 | 4.4 | 5.1 | 4.7 | 3.4 | 4.5 | 3.9 | 5.7 | 6.1 | 5.9 |
| Maharashtra | 11.543 | 12.2 | 13.5 | 12.8 | 9.9 | 11.2 | 10.5 | 13.4 | 14.2 | 13.8 |
| Manipur | 8.398 | 8.4 | 8.2 | 8.3 | 6.9 | 6.4 | 6.7 | 9.0 | 9.1 | 9.1 |
| Meghalaya | 4.395 | 4.0 | 3.3 | 3.6 | 3.9 | 2.4 | 3.0 | 4.1 | 3.9 | 4 |
| Mizoram | 1.352 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.7 | 0.6 | 0.6 |
| Nagaland | 2.475 | 2.8 | 3 | 2.9 | 2 | 1.9 | 1.9 | 5.3 | 5.1 | 5.2 |
| Odisha | 2.172 | 2.2 | 2.3 | 2.2 | 1.7 | 1.9 | 1.8 | 2.3 | 2.4 | 2.3 |
| Puducherry | 6.054 | 8.2 | 8.3 | 8.2 | 8.6 | 8.4 | 8.5 | 8.6 | 8.5 | 8.6 |
| Punjab | 1.93 | 2.2 | 2.2 | 2.2 | 1.9 | 2 | 1.9 | 2.7 | 2.8 | 2.8 |
| Rajasthan | 9.067 | 4.6 | 5.0 | 4.8 | 3.6 | 3.9 | 3.8 | 6.3 | 6.7 | 6.5 |
| Sikkim | 1.616 | 2.4 | 2.0 | 2.2 | 1.3 | 1.4 | 1.3 | 2.6 | 2.4 | 2.5 |
| Tamil Nadu | 5.862 | 6.8 | 7.0 | 6.9 | 6.7 | 6.5 | 6.6 | 7.0 | 7.1 | 7.1 |
| Telangana | 14.9 | 16.3 | 15.6 | 10.3 | 12.2 | 11.3 | 14.8 | 15.7 | 15.2 | |
| Tripura | 8.602 | 8.3 | 9.8 | 9.1 | 6.7 | 7.6 | 7.2 | 9.9 | 10.7 | 10.3 |
| Uttar Pradesh | 19.26 | 14.0 | 15.3 | 14.6 | 11.7 | 13.2 | 12.4 | 16.8 | 17.5 | 17.1 |
| Uttarakhand | 13.948 | 9.8 | 12.0 | 10.8 | 7.1 | 9.3 | 8.2 | 15.0 | 16.1 | 15.6 |
| West Bengal | 27.011 | 33.7 | 37.1 | 35.4 | 26.4 | 35.5 | 31.5 | 35.3 | 37.3 | 36.3 |
Exceptional Cases: Demographic Distinctiveness
Jammu and Kashmir, with its Muslim-majority population (68.3%), demonstrates enrollment patterns that closely mirror its demographic composition. The state shows exceptional retention with higher secondary enrollment (65.4%), maintaining 93.0% of primary levels (70.3%), the highest retention rate among significant states. Gender patterns consistently favor girls across all levels.
Lakshadweep represents an extreme case with near-universal Muslim enrollment (99.7%) across all levels, reflecting its overwhelmingly Muslim population (96.6%). The union territory demonstrates perfect retention across educational levels and complete gender parity.
Ladakh, a small UT, presents an unusual pattern with increasing Muslim representation at higher educational levels. Higher secondary enrollment (64.2%) exceeds primary enrollment (58.5%), suggesting unique demographic or migration factors affecting educational participation.
Factors Influencing Regional Disparities
The significant interstate variations in Muslim educational participation suggest multiple influencing factors:
Historical and educational investment appears to correlate strongly with current outcomes. States like Kerala, which have longstanding commitments to education, show superior performance in Muslim inclusion compared to states with historically weaker educational systems.
Economic development levels show transparent relationships with educational retention. More developed states generally demonstrate stronger retention of Muslim students across educational levels compared to less developed regions.
State-specific policies regarding minority education, including scholarship programs, educational infrastructure in Muslim-concentrated areas, and targeted interventions, likely contribute to the observed variations.
Cultural factors and regional variations in attitudes toward education may influence community educational decisions. States with stronger overall educational cultures show better Muslim participation across levels.
Policy Implications
The stark regional disparities in Muslim educational participation highlight the necessity of state-specific approaches rather than uniform national policies. High-performing states like Kerala offer valuable policy lessons that might be adapted to other contexts.
For states with high attrition at upper levels, focused interventions at critical transition points are essential. The secondary to higher secondary transition appears particularly vulnerable, suggesting the need for targeted support at this stage.
Gender patterns require nuanced approaches. While most states show higher participation by Muslim girls, the extent of this advantage varies significantly. States like Haryana, where gender patterns reverse at higher levels, require particular attention to gender-specific barriers.
Economic support mechanisms may be fundamental in states showing severe attrition. As opportunity costs increase at higher educational levels, financial incentives might help offset pressures for early workforce entry, particularly for boys.
Capacity building in predominantly Muslim areas, especially for higher secondary education, could address accessibility barriers in states with poor retention rates.
Concluding Observations
This state-wise analysis reveals that Muslim educational participation in India cannot be understood through national averages alone. The substantial regional variations in enrollment patterns and retention rates highlight diverse educational trajectories across states.
While some states demonstrate that high Muslim enrollment and strong retention are achievable goals, others face critical challenges in maintaining representation across educational levels. These disparities underscore the importance of state-specific educational strategies that address regional contexts, existing infrastructure, and local barriers to educational progression.
The success models of states like Kerala, West Bengal, Jammu, and Kashmir offer valuable policy insights that might inform interventions in more challenged regions. By understanding and addressing the state-specific factors influencing Muslim educational participation, policymakers can work toward more equitable educational outcomes across diverse areas of India.
References
- Unified District Information System for Education Plus (UDISEPlus) 2023-24
- Census of India, 2011
