Introduction
The quantity of information and data collected and
processed for the planning and management of educational activities has been
constantly on the increase. India has a fairly developed educational
information system. States and UTs which have a mixed of small and large
educational systems have certain common limitations. Inadequate machinery,
shortage of qualified and trained staff, lack of coordination between data
collecting agencies and deficiencies in analysis and tabulation are some of the
common limitations. Despite all these limitations, the existing information
system generates voluminous data but hardly any information is feedback to
lower and the lowest level. The lowest level at which data aggregation takes
place is block and the Block Education Officer is the key person engaged in the
collection of educational data but is rarely involved in the planning and
implementation of educational programmes. In most of the cases, the staff
identified at this level for data collection is neither adequate nor qualified
and properly trained. All which resulted into non-utilisation of data.
Moreover, the data collected is generally quantitative in nature and
practically no information is collected which is qualitative in nature.
Whatever information is being disseminated is aggregate in nature that resulted
into loss of vital information that can otherwise be used to monitor the
functioning of schools.
At
the time of the adoption of the constitution in 1950, the focus of the planning
activities were on provision of schooling facilities which later shifted to
universal enrolment and retention. It is only in the recent past that attention
is now being paid to quality of education and factors that contributes to
school effectiveness. The existing set of data is not adequate to monitor the
functioning of schools. The information that is being disseminated is generally
outdated and is not uniform in terms of coverage. Though NCERT through its
all-India educational survey collects information on school infrastructure but
disseminates only aggregate data, which is of limited use. Therefore, a lot
more information on functioning of schools is required to collect on regular basis,
which leads us to think of a Local-level Information System (LIS) with focus on
indicators of school effectiveness. The LIS, if developed will help to monitor
school functioning and provide a support system to managers working at
different levels.
The
Present Article
In the
present article, first initiatives taken by the government to improve quality
of education is presented. This is followed by a detailed review of literature
on quality of education and indicators of school effectiveness. Thereafter,
factors that influence quality and school effectiveness are identified which is
followed by a brief description on examination results as an instrument of
school improvement and role of different actors in monitoring school
functioning. In the last part, need of Local-level Information System (LIS) is
discussed which highlights major issues and concerns in developing a LIS.
Concern for Quality of Education
The
Government has initiated a number of programmes to improve the quality of
school functioning. The National Policy on Education (1986) and its Revised
Policy Formulations (1992) had taken enough care to improve the quality of
school functioning, which will enable all children to achieve essential levels
of learning. Through different schemes, minimum facilities are ensured in
schools, which if implemented, are bound to improve the quality of school
functioning. The scope of centrally sponsored Operation Blackboard scheme has
been recently enlarged to provide three reasonably large rooms that are usable
in all weather and at least three teachers to work in every school. The NPE
also envisaged that all children be given access to education of a comparable
standard. The Minimum Level of Learning (MLL) lays down learning outcomes in
the form of competencies or levels of learning for each stage of elementary
education. The strategy also prescribes the adoption of measures that will
ensure achievement of these levels by children both in the formal schools as
well as Non-formal Education (NFE) centers. The MLL scheme envisages periodical
and systematic programme of performance analysis to ensure improvement in the
quality of education.
Role of community is important for managing quality of
school functioning. The NPE envisaged Village Education Committees (VEC) which
would be responsible for administration of the programmes in the field of
education at the village level. The main responsibility of VEC is to initiate
micro level planning and school mapping exercises in the village through
systematic house to house survey and periodic discussions with the parents. NPE
also envisaged school complexes so that institutions exchange resources,
personnel, materials and teaching aids on a sharing basis. A few successful
experiments have been made but in most of the states, the programme is yet to
emerge as a comprehensive and systematically administered one. However, in the
more recent past, through the District Primary Education Programme (DPEP), a
number of steps have been initiated, so as to ensure improvement in quality of
education. The programme is under implementation in about 150 districts of 14
states.
The quality of Education
and School Effectiveness: Research Evidences
A
number of research studies conducted in developing countries categorised
problems relating to quality of primary education in three categories, namely,
inputs, facilitating inputs and will to act -and identified a number of factors
under each of these three categories. Fuller (1986, reported in IIEP, 1995)
also reviewed 26 multivariate studies with focus on input factors. It has been
observed that qualification of teachers having influence on learner's
achievement is major factor amongst the input factors. Further it has been
found in as many as 22 studies that higher is the years of college or in
teacher training institution, more is the learners achievements. Text Books
having significant effect on learners achievement is found in 16 studies as
compared to 15 studies having effect on library size and activities. Mid-day
meal type programmes have been found a positive relationship with achievement
in as many as 5 studies. Apart from the factors presented above, a large number
of other factors also influence learners achievement but are not as established
as presented above (McMahon, 1993).
In India, a number of studies have been conducted
in the recent past which shows low level of achievement among primary school
children. These studies, broadly identifies three sets of factors which
influence learners achievement, namely, school, family and individual
characteristics. School facilities and equipments are found to be positively
correlated with learners achievement. Teacher's quality is also found to be one
of the significant factors influencing learner's achievement. On the other
hand, parental education and occupation, the social class and family
environment are found to have a significant effect on learners achievement.
Psychological variables such as, adjustment, anxiety, self-concept,
intelligence, achievement and motivation are the individual characteristics
which are found to affect learners achievement significantly. In some of the
earlier studies, it was found that educational level of parents is very
important factor affecting the level of achievement of learners which means
children of illiterate parents perform very poor. Some of the other variables
found significant influence on learners achievement are income, social
background, facilities at home and parent-child relationship. It has also been
found that students from private locality perform better and performance of
students from private schools is better than that of schools under other
management. These private schools are mostly an urban phenomenon and most of
them have English as the medium of instruction.
As a part of Inter-Regional Research Project on the
Improvement of Basic Education Services, International Institute for
Educational Planning (IIEP, Paris) conducted a number of studies, which also
includes study, conducted in the state of Madhya Pradesh. The recently study by
Govinda and Varghese (1991) shows that school facilities are important only up
to a level of minimum facilities and beyond which other factors, especially
school process factors, are most important. This study has become the basis of
a number of other studies conducted recently under the aegis of DPEP programme.
It has also been established that trained teacher is more effective in schools
with poor facilities than in schools with all facilities. School management and
classroom practices are found to be very important.
The latest study on 'School
Quality and Student Learning' conducted by Varghese (1994) in one of the
educationally advanced states, namely, Kerala establishes that type of
management does not seem to be an influencing factor in learners achievement.
However, it is internal management of the school, irrespective of the type of
management the school has, is very important in influencing learner
achievement. The study further shows that the level of school infrastructure
and variations in the availability of teaching learning material seem not to be
closely associated with levels of learning. It has also been revealed that
female teachers are more effective than their counterparts in Grade I but the
same is not true for higher grades. Qualifications of teachers have also found
to be positively correlated with learner's achievement so as the frequency of
homework and class work in all grades. Sex of learner does not found to be
important in predicting achievement but caste is found closely associated with
learners achievement. One of the significant findings is improvement in
learners achievement with improvement in education of parents. Similarly
students from households where parents are in regular employment show a higher
level of learners achievement. Children from households which have electricity
connection show a higher performance than others. Similarly, achievement scores
have been found to be positively associated with help for homework at home.
Possession of textbooks is found to be positively influence on mean scores so
as with reading of books other than textbooks.
The
frequency of PTA meetings are also found to be an indicator of school
functioning. Similarly, classroom supervision by the head master positively
influences the levels of learner achievement. Keeping in view the status of
education in general and facilities in schools in particular in Kerala, these
findings cannot be generalised at the national level. The other base line
studies show different factors influencing learners achievement but the very
low learner's achievement is common feature in all of these studies.
Factors that
Influence Quality and School Functioning
All
the research studies mentioned above reveal that there is no single factor,
which alone explain variation in the quality of education in terms of learners
achievements. Further, it is noticed that different factors influence quality
in different schools. However, it has been noticed that in general, process
variables are more important than the input variables (Can-on, 1995). So far as
the quality of good school is concerned, it has directly linked to behavior of
a teacher who should be in focus in policies related to quality of education.
The quality of education cannot be improved upon unless the delivery system
that takes place in schools itself is improved or the system level changes if
any, are reflected in the classroom interactions.
On the basis of research studies,
IIEP has identified a set of nine factors that may affect functioning of a
school (Chau, 1995 & IIEP, 1995). Similarly, OECD (1989) also identified a
set of characteristics of effective schools. The first factor identified is
characteristics of the location that includes factors relating to local
environment in which they operate. Such factors are: (a) geographical context
(b) demographic situation (c) economic situation (d) living conditions (e)
social and cultural characteristics and (f) educational situation. The next
factor that was identified is the relations with school administration which
has either a positive or negative impact on functioning of a school. School
inspectors can play an important role in solving problems of a school
teacher/head master or the inspector extends full support to the teacher, so
that teaching can be improved. It is not only that a school inspector helps a
teacher in improving teaching but he/she can also look into the training needs
of a teacher, which also play a positive role in improving school functioning.
An effective parent-teacher interaction is
essential for smooth functioning of a school and there should not be
communication gap between the school and the parents. Even parents can be
involved in school management but direct interventions in classroom is not
recommended. Parents can extend a helping hand to school in one or many ways
for which teachers participation in community activities is essential. Once
that is established, community may extend full support to the school. The next
factor which significantly contributes to better school functioning is the
climate within the school and the school management, for which the school Head
Master/Head Teacher is the key person to play a leading role. Therefore,
training of school Head Master should be taken seriously and the programmes so
developed should cater the need of head masters so that they discharge their
duties effectively and efficiently.If the teachers posted in a school are
qualified, experienced and trained and are adequate in number that would
definitely improve the teaching quality which is found to be one of the important
factor for better functioning of a school. Under the categories relating to
material conditions for teaching, factors, such as, school infrastructure,
class teaching equipment's, pupils supplies and teachers instructional material
plays an important role in effectively functioning of a school. In Indian
conditions, a school (in rural areas) having fulfilled all the four factors has
yet to be seen.
Amongst the school
infrastructure variables, building of a school and its physical appearance
gives the first impression of the school and type of activities that are taking
place in it. After the school infrastructure, next comes the class teaching
equipment's which includes a chair and table for teacher and other basic
equipments, such as, blackboard, charts, maps and trunk.. Once the teaching
equipments are identified, the next set of items relates to conditions provided
to pupils which includes a sufficient space to sit either with the provision of
a mat or a bench.In whatever form the training needs of teachers are identified
and programmes developed, all efforts to improve quality will be meaningless
unless the basic facilities mentioned above are provided to teachers and
pupils. Even though a school has a building and required material conditions
that would not itself guarantee that the teaching learning process will be
effective, as it also depends upon the composition of class in terms of number
of pupils (class-size), its boys and girls distribution and distribution
according to their social class and income and educational level of parents.
Similarly, the process may also be affected by the general health and living
conditions of pupils which may be better in the urban areas than in rural areas
where better facilities are available. Even in rural areas due to a large
number of known reasons, pupils do not attend schools regularly which severely
affect learning process.
Above
all, the most important factor which influence school effectiveness is the
teaching process that a school has adopted and the actual classroom
transactions. An information system, which gives information on how, a teacher
teaches in a class? Whether he/she gives homework? and whether pupils
participate in classroom activities is yet to be seen but is very important, so
far as the quality of education is concerned.
Use of charts, map, blackboard, giving examples, demonstration, home work
and regular tests are some attributes of an effective teaching process. A good
teaching process should be reflected in the learner's attainment in mastery of
reading, writing, arithmetic and problem solving. These are termed as learning
tools that are essential to acquire and apply other knowledge and skills and
even play an important role in the formation of attitudes and values (IIEP,
1995). Apart from developing skills, a child should also acquire knowledge
about environment, health and nutrition but information about the same is not
an easy task to collect. However, pupils aptitude in reading, writing and
numeracy can be obtained by employing achievement tests developed for the
purpose. Therefore, while developing
an information system with focus on school effectiveness, the considerations
presented above should be given due importance, so that the system provides an
opportunity to administrators to take correctives measures at an appropriate
time.
Examination
Results as an Instrument of School Improvement
By and large no detention policy is being followed up to
the primary level, which means all children are promoted to the next higher
grade irrespective of their level of achievement. However, there is a provision
of examination at the primary level but that is not generally considered
whether a child is promoted to the next higher grade or not. But at the end of
the primary cycle, examinations are compulsory and promotion of children to the
next cycle is based on their performance in the examination. In fact, the
examination results are disseminated only for the secondary and other higher
levels. At the primary level, there is no systematic method of collection and
dissemination of the examination results and hence there is no feedback system.
However, the Head Master/Head Teacher may
be the only functionary who may be using the examination results. In addition,
the results are sent to the functionaries for monitoring purposes at the block
and district level but the available data do not show any evidence to that
effect. Also, there is no evidence that information on the examination results
is used for improving quality of the teaching-learning process.
Role
of Different Actors in Monitoring School Functioning
At different level, different functionaries are
responsible for monitoring school functioning, which is evident from the
existing administrative structures in different states. Head Master is generally
responsible for monitoring the school functioning but still a large number of
schools have no Head Master. It is Head Teacher who has to manage the school
functioning but he/she has no specific powers (Mehta, 1995). In a single
teacher school with multiple grades, a teacher hardly gets any time to think
about the quality of education. The Block Education Officer and District
Education Officer are the functionaries who are mainly responsible for
monitoring school functioning but they hardly visit any school regularly which
is mainly due to a large number of schools under their jurisdiction. For
example, in one of the educationally backward states, namely, Rajasthan, on an
average a supervisor visited only seven schools in academic year (NIEPA, 1995).
The supervision is generally routine in nature and is more or less inspection
of school records and there is no feedback system. The school development
committees are generally not active in most of the villages. However, research
evidences are available which shows active participation of PTAs in the
functioning of schools. The concept of mother PTAs are also gradually coming up
in a state like Kerala. Teacher's absenteeism is the major problem, which can
be checked through community involvement in functioning of schools. In this
regard, VECs and PTA can play a significant role to check both teachers and
pupils absenteeism and hence more powers need to be given to them. But most of
the states have not yet established VEC under the act as suggested by the CABE
Committee on Decentralised Management of Education and Panchayati Raj Acts
(1993). The Committee envisaged an
important role for the Panchayat in exercising supervision over early childhood
care and education, non-formal education, primary education and adult education
in its jurisdiction. It recommended that a Panchayat Standing Committee on
Education or the VEC as sub-committee of Panchayat may be constituted at this
level with not less than seven and not more than fifteen members representing
the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, backward classes and minorities
along with representatives of PTA, Anganwadi worker and the community members
interested in education. The existing VECs that are constituted under the
Government Order are not equipped with powers as envisaged by the CABE
Committee.
Need of a Local Level Information System
So far as the macro level planning is concerned the existing
information system disseminates enough data to undertake planning exercises at
the state and national level. Whether it is the question of needs of school
supplies or determining needs for opening new schools, the same can be managed
within the available data. But hardly any information relating to school
functioning is available on regular basis at the block level. More specifically
information on factors that influence the quality of education in general and
school effectiveness in particular is not available from the existing sources.
Whatever information is passed on to higher levels is aggregate in nature, hence
question of using it for monitoring the functioning of school dose not arise.
Since, the existing information system and also those of computerised MIS
currently under implementation do not provide institution-wise information,
they are of limited use to the extent of generating aggregate data. Therefore,
the scope of MIS needs to be expanded, so that indicators of quality of
education can be generated and on-line information be made available not only
to head master and teachers but also to those who are responsible for
monitoring quality of education.
The Issues
There
are many issues, which should be considered while building local-level
information system for monitoring the school functioning. Recently, Govinda (1995)
identified these issues along with sources of information. In the context of
existing information system, the building of a database is termed as a
technical exercise, which is handled, by a group of professionals who are
trained in such types of activities. The role of the school and its teachers is
limited to the extent that they just supply the filled-in performa to the next
higher authority contrary to which the local level information system centre
around school and its programmes that lead towards improving the quality of
education. Therefore, the first important task is to identify the need of
different actors including the administrators, as all those who are interested
in the development of primary education and functioning of schools will use the
information base. The administrators cannot develop this type of information
base alone but it has to be a collaborative exercise in which participation of
all those concerned should be ensured. The requisite information will have to
be collected both from the persons inside and outside the school. Keeping in
view the information needs at the local level which vary from place to place,
the information system that is being developed cannot base upon a set of pre-determined
indicators. However, there may be some common variables in different databases
at local level, which are both quantitative and qualitative in nature. Needless
to mention that the existing information system activities cannot continue in isolation.
Therefore, the present annual collection of statistics should also form part of
the new tools that are developed for the local level information system. The
indicators that are developed for monitoring quality of school functioning
should however, match the requirements at the local level.
Once the local level needs are identified and indicators
are developed, the next important task is to develop tools to collect data,
which need understanding of a local area for which the information base is
being developed. The reports that will be generated through the database is
based upon the type of input tools which needs to be developed carefully. The
other important issues that should be decided is collection of data from school
and the local level on continuing basis. It is not that the database so
developed is one time affair but for proper monitoring of the school
functioning, the same is needed on regular basis. Rather day-to-day updating
would have to be ensured so that corrective actions are both suggested and
monitored. Computers can play an important role in continuous updating of the
school database. Initially, it may not be an easy task but with the active
co-operation of all concerned, it can be achieved especially when every one is
associated with the school and its functioning. The variables on which continuous
information is required should be decided before the actual operations are
started but the system so developed should be flexible enough to adopt any
change in the requirements.
The
most important aspect of any information system is dissemination without which
the basic objective will not be realised. As the performa will be developed in
consultation with the different personnel interested in school functioning, the
dissemination plan should also be developed in their consultation so that data
is easily accessible to all those concerned. For acquaintance with the system
better it would be to involve different activists in development of database
right from the beginning. The data feeding is one such activity that should
involve school and other local functionaries. Abnormalities in data, if any,
would be automatically taken care by the person who makes entry as he/she is
acquainted well with the system. A large variety of computer software's are now
available through which multi-user system that ensures easy access to database
can be developed. Transparency in school functioning is one of the important factors,
which can be provided, if the information system so developed is a multi-user
system. Initially, such type of activities can be started in a few selected
schools on an experimental basis but in a phased manner, its scope can be
expanded. For collecting information, structured questionnaires need to be
developed which should be tested before the same is finally adopted. According
to need, different areas or even different institutions can have different
performa but there should be some core list of variables common to each and
every institution. For factual information, questionnaire is an appropriate
tool to develop but for opinions, structured interviews are generally
conducted. For measuring achievement of learners, standard tests should be
developed under the guidance of a professional who is an expert in such type of
activities. Govinda (1995) identified different steps for preparing instruments
for data collection which includes (i) specification of the information to be
collected (ii) formulating the questions (iii) formatting the instrument (iv)
pre-testing the instrument and (v) finalisation of the instrument. In LIS
framework, information from all quarters should be collected which may include
headmaster, teacher, learners, parents/community members, school management
committee, local level administrators, school records, members of VEC and
Non-Government Organisations for which a variety of questionnaires need to be
developed. Needless to mention that the list of sources presented above is a
suggestive one and more sources can be identified and added.
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