One Size Doesn’t Fit All: A Policy Framework for Small Schools in India

A Data-Driven Approach to Education Policy Reform in India based on UDISEPlus 2023-24 Data

Abstract

This article explores the critical need for separate planning modules for small schools (≤50 students) versus large schools (>500 students) in India’s education system. Analysis of UDISEPlus 2023-24 data reveals that 34.9% of India’s 1.47 million schools have enrolments of 50 or fewer students, presenting unique operational and educational challenges. Despite existing provisions in Samagra Shiksha, these schools face substantial difficulties, including teacher shortages, administrative burdens, digital divide issues, and implementation challenges related to numerous government initiatives. This research argues that applying uniform planning approaches across drastically different school sizes leads to inefficient resource allocation, inadequate educational outcomes, and sustainability issues. The paper proposes a framework for differentiated planning modules tailored to school size and local contexts.

Introduction

Education planning in India has historically followed relatively uniform approaches across schools of varying sizes. However, recent data from UDISEPlus 2023-24 reveals a significant bifurcation in the school landscape: 34.9% of schools operate with 50 or fewer students, while 6.6% serve more than 500 students. This stark disparity necessitates a paradigm shift in educational planning methodologies. Small schools, particularly those in rural and remote areas, face distinctive challenges that cannot adequately be addressed through planning models designed for larger institutions.

The present article is based on the official UDISEPlus 2023-24 data.

Current Context: School Enrollment Distribution

UDISEPlus 2023-24 shows that India’s 1.47 million schools demonstrate remarkable enrollment diversity. The data reveals that:

• 4.6% of schools have fewer than 10 students
• 7.2% have 11-20 students
• 8.8% have 21-30 students
• 7.9% have 31-40 students
• 6.4% have 41-50 students

Collectively, slightly more than one-third (34.9%) of all Indian schools operate with 50 or fewer students; this represents a substantial portion of the educational infrastructure requiring specialized attention. In contrast, only 6.6% of schools have enrolments exceeding 500 students, yet these institutions likely serve a disproportionately large percentage of enrolment.

Percentage of Schools Across Various Enrolment Brackets

Source: UDISEPlus 2023-24

State/UT	Percentage of Schools having Enrolment across various Enrolment Brackets
	Total No. of Schools	<  10	11 – 20	21-30	31-40	41-50	Up to 50	51 to 100	101 to 500	>  500
India	1471891	4.6	7.2	8.8	7.9	6.4	34.9	21.7	36.7	6.6
Andaman & Nicobar Islands	412	10.9	10.9	10.0	7.5	7.0	46.3	12.9	31.5	9.2
Andhra Pradesh	61373	7.4	11.5	15.2	9.6	5.6	49.3	14.5	29.9	6.3
Arunachal Pradesh	3490	24.7	14.4	8.7	6.4	4.6	58.8	14.6	23.7	2.8
Assam	56630	3.3	7.9	10.1	11.5	8.4	41.2	24.7	30.2	4.0
Bihar	94686	0.6	0.8	1.6	2.4	3.4	8.8	21.7	60.8	8.6
Chandigarh	230	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.4	0.4	0.8	22.2	76.5
Chhattisgarh	56615	2.9	9.0	11.3	11.9	10.0	45.1	27.9	24.4	2.5
D & N Haveli & D & Diu	432	0.2	2.3	3.0	4.2	6.3	16.0	20.9	48.0	15.3
Delhi	5497	0.2	0.5	0.5	0.6	0.8	2.6	4.8	43.3	49.1
Goa	1487	8.6	15.7	8.6	5.8	4.2	42.9	12.5	33.2	11.3
Gujarat	53626	1.9	4.0	5.6	5.9	4.5	21.9	17.9	51.6	8.7
Haryana	23517	2.0	3.3	6.4	5.8	4.9	22.4	20.1	45.9	11.7
Himachal Pradesh	17826	12.7	21.6	14.6	10.0	6.3	65.2	15.3	17.5	2.1
Jammu & Kashmir	24296	4.4	10.8	12.1	10.4	8.5	46.2	25.2	25.8	2.9
Jharkhand	44475	1.8	5.0	8.3	10.0	8.8	33.9	24.9	35.3	5.9
Karnataka	75869	8.0	11.2	8.2	6.1	4.8	38.3	17.6	38.2	5.9
Kerala	15864	1.9	2.6	3.5	4.0	4.0	16.0	17.9	41.7	24.3
Ladakh	995	34.4	18.9	12.3	6.3	4.9	76.8	11.1	10.3	1.7
Lakshadweep	37	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	2.7	2.7	2.7	75.6	18.9
MP	123412	4.1	8.5	12.2	11.5	8.2	44.5	22.6	28.7	4.2
Maharashtra	108237	6.4	9.6	11.4	7.4	4.9	39.7	15.6	35.2	9.6
Manipur	4646	9.5	14.1	13.2	11.3	8.1	56.2	15.6	21.9	6.4
Meghalaya	14601	6.7	15.1	15.1	12.6	9.4	58.9	23.2	16.7	1.3
Mizoram	3941	6.5	11.3	14.7	14.2	10.6	57.3	24.6	16.6	1.4
Nagaland	2725	10.2	12.7	10.3	7.4	5.7	46.3	18.3	28.2	7.3
Odisha	61693	1.1	6.3	11.9	11.1	8.5	38.9	24.4	33.4	3.3
Puducherry	735	0.3	1.6	2.4	3.0	4.9	12.2	20.1	50.5	17.1
Punjab	27404	1.2	3.9	6.8	7.7	7.0	26.6	22.3	41.3	9.7
Rajasthan	107757	6.3	7.2	10.1	7.7	5.2	36.5	17.8	40.6	5.0
Sikkim	1254	12.4	17.3	12.8	7.4	7.4	57.3	18.1	21.9	2.7
Tamil Nadu	58722	4.7	10.8	11.0	8.0	5.1	39.6	17.3	31.3	11.7
Telangana	42901	11.8	9.8	9.1	6.9	5.0	42.6	16.9	31.6	8.7
Tripura	4923	8.8	14.6	12.1	8.9	6.3	50.7	17.5	25.6	6.3
Uttar Pradesh	255087	2.2	3.5	5.0	6.3	6.6	23.6	28.5	42.6	5.2
Uttarakhand	22551	18.3	19.2	11.3	7.3	4.5	60.6	13.0	22.6	3.7
West Bengal	93945	6.7	5.2	7.7	8.4	7.5	35.5	25.0	31.2	8.3

Current Provisions in Samagra Shiksha

Samagra Shiksha, launched in 2018 as an integrated scheme for school education, acknowledges small schools’ existence but lacks comprehensive differentiated planning frameworks specifically tailored to address their unique challenges. The scheme provides:

• Composite school grants based on enrollment brackets, which offer marginally higher per-student allocations for smaller schools
• Provisions for rationalizing teacher deployment based on enrollment
• Support for ICT infrastructure development across schools
• School complex/cluster approaches to resource sharing

However, these provisions remain insufficient for addressing the fundamental structural challenges of small schools. The implementation falls short in several ways:

1. The composite grant structure still doesn’t adequately account for the significantly higher per-capita operational costs in very small schools
2. Teacher rationalization often prioritizes efficiency over educational effectiveness in remote locations
3. The school complex approach faces implementation challenges due to geographical barriers, particularly in hilly and remote regions.
4. Digital infrastructure support doesn’t sufficiently address connectivity and maintenance issues specific to remote small schools.

Core Challenges Facing Small Schools

Acute Teacher Shortages and Multi-role Burden

Small schools typically operate with critically limited teaching staff, often with just one or two teachers managing multiple grades; this creates several interconnected challenges:

• Teachers must simultaneously manage multi-grade classrooms, requiring specialized pedagogical approaches rarely covered in standard teacher training
• The same limited staff must handle all administrative functions alongside teaching duties
• Teachers in small schools face excessive administrative burdens, including:
  • Preparation and or serving of mid-day meals
  • Procurement and inventory management
  • Health and hygiene monitoring
  • Community liaison responsibilities

Administrative Documentation Overload

Small schools face disproportionate administrative burdens relative to their human resources:

• Mandatory reporting across multiple digital platforms (UDISEPlus, SDMIS, PEN, APAAR) requires significant time investment from the limited staff
• Time-bound submission requirements often conflict with teaching schedules
• Each new government initiative typically adds monitoring and reporting requirements without corresponding staff increases.
• School heads/head teachers must personally handle administrative, financial, and academic documentation that would be distributed across multiple staff positions in larger schools.
• In addition, teachers are often engaged in non-teaching assignments, which further raises the burden on teachers in small schools.

Digital Divide Challenges

The digital transformation of educational administration creates particular hardships for small schools:

• Limited or unreliable internet connectivity, particularly in remote areas
• Insufficient digital device availability for administrative purposes
• Lack of dedicated technical support for maintenance and troubleshooting
• Power supply irregularities affecting digital operations
• Limited digital literacy among available staff, with minimal training opportunities

Implementation of Educational Initiatives

Small schools struggle to effectively implement the numerous educational and administrative initiatives mandated by central and state authorities:

• National Education Policy 2020 implementation requires substantial planning and adaptation
• Foundational Literacy and Numeracy initiatives require specialized materials and approaches
• Competency-based education reforms demand significant teacher preparation
• Assessment reforms require additional documentation and tracking
• Vocational education components are challenging to implement with limited specialized staff

The Case for Differential Planning Models

Operational Inefficiencies

Small schools face unique operational challenges that render standard planning models inappropriate. Teacher deployment, resource allocation, and administrative structures designed for larger institutions often become inefficient or impractical when applied to schools with minimal enrollment. For instance, the prescribed teacher-pupil ratios and subject specialization models become economically unsustainable in schools with fewer than 30 students.

Pedagogical Differences

The pedagogical requirements of small schools differ fundamentally from those of larger institutions. Multi-grade teaching, mixed-age learning groups, and individualized instruction often become necessary in small school environments. These approaches require different teacher preparation, learning materials, assessment strategies, and classroom organization than the more grade-segregated approaches typical in larger schools.

Resource Allocation Challenges

Uniform per-capita-based funding models disadvantage small schools to achieve economies of scale. Fixed costs for infrastructure maintenance, administrative functions, and essential educational resources must be distributed across fewer students, resulting in higher per-student expenditures without corresponding increases in funding allocations.

Community Context and School Function

Small schools often serve distinctive community functions, particularly in remote, tribal, or specialized locations. Their educational mission frequently extends beyond standard curriculum delivery to include cultural preservation, community cohesion, and local development functions rarely emphasized in larger, more urban institutions.

Proposed Framework for Differentiated Planning

A bifurcated planning approach should consider the following:

1. Scale-Appropriate Resource Allocation Models: Developing funding formulas that account for the unavoidable inefficiencies of small-scale operations while ensuring educational quality.
2. Administrative Support Mechanisms: Creating shared administrative support systems to reduce the documentation burden on teaching staff:
   • Cluster-based data entry personnel dedicated to supporting multiple small schools
   • Simplified reporting formats specifically designed for small schools
   • Mobile support teams for periodic administrative assistance
3. Contextualized Staffing Patterns: Creating flexible teacher deployment models that enable effective multi-grade teaching, potentially including:
   • Specialized training for multi-grade pedagogy
   • Cluster-based specialist teacher sharing
   • Integration of community knowledge resources
   • Additional support staff for non-teaching functions like mid-day meal preparation
4. Adapted Infrastructure Standards: Establishing infrastructure requirements proportionate to student numbers while maintaining quality learning environments.
5. Technology Integration and Support:
   • Providing offline-capable digital tools that can synchronize when connectivity is available
   • Developing low-power technological solutions suited for energy constraints
   • Creating dedicated technical support mechanisms for remote schools
   • Establishing realistic digital reporting expectations aligned with connectivity realities
6. Community Engagement Mechanisms: Developing stronger school-community integration methods for small schools to enhance sustainability and relevance.
7. Streamlined Program Implementation: Creating simplified versions of national initiatives specifically designed for implementation in small school contexts with limited human resources.

Concluding Observations

Small schools’ prevalence in India’s educational landscape demands urgent attention to differentiated planning approaches. The current practice of applying relatively uniform planning models across drastically different institutional scales results in inefficiencies, resource misallocation, and missed opportunities for educational enhancement. While Samagra Shiksha provides some provisions for small schools, a more comprehensive and specialized framework is necessary. Apex educational planning institutions like NIEPA may lead in this direction.

The administrative burden placed on teachers in small schools significantly detracts from their core educational responsibilities, particularly when managing multiple digital reporting systems with limited technological infrastructure. These challenges are compounded by the continuous introduction of new educational initiatives without corresponding resources for implementation in small school contexts.

Policymakers must recognize that small schools are not simply scaled-down versions of larger institutions but distinct educational entities requiring specialized planning frameworks. By developing bifurcated planning modules—one for small schools and another for large institutions—India can better address its diverse educational needs while improving efficiency and outcomes across the system. This approach would enhance educational quality and improve teacher well-being and retention in these challenging but vital educational settings.

References

Azim Premji Foundation. (2022). The challenges of small schools in rural India. Bengaluru: Azim Premji University.

Bandyopadhyay, M. (2019). Challenges of access, equity and quality in small schools. Economic & Political Weekly, 54(18), 37-45.

Batra, P. (2021). Quality education in small rural schools: Challenges for policy and practice. Journal of Educational Planning and Administration, 35(3), 311-330.

Dyer, C., & Sriprakash, A. (2022). Small schools in India: Pedagogical challenges and opportunities. Comparative Education Review, 66(2), 234-255.

Government of India. (2020). National Education Policy 2020. Ministry of Education, New Delhi.

Govinda, R., & Bandyopadhyay, M. (2018). Small schools in rural India: ‘Exclusion’ and ‘inequity’ in hierarchical school system. Create Pathways to Access, Research Monograph No. 40.

Kumar, K., & Sarangapani, P. M. (2021). Small schools, large implications: Challenges of educational administration in rural India. Indian Journal of Educational Research, 10(2), 78-96.

Ministry of Education. (2023). Samagra Shiksha: An integrated scheme for school education—Framework for implementation. Government of India, New Delhi.

NCERT. (2021). Multi-grade teaching strategies for small schools. National Council of Educational Research and Training, New Delhi.

NIEPA. (2022). School size and its impact on educational outcomes: Insights from UDISEPlus data. National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration, New Delhi.

Ramachandran, V. (2021). Small schools: The forgotten frontier of Indian education. Education Review India, 9(3), 112-126.

Singh, A. K. (2023). Digital transformation and small rural schools: Bridging the divide. Indian Journal of Educational Technology, 5(1), 42-57.

UDISEPlus. (2024). Unified District Information System for Education Plus, 2023-24. Department of School Education & Literacy, Ministry of Education, Government of India.

Varghese, N. V., & Mehrotra, S. (2021). Planning for small schools: Efficiency, equity, and quality considerations. NIEPA, New Delhi.

World Bank. (2020). Getting the right teachers to the right places: Investigating teacher deployment in India. World Bank Group, Washington, DC.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) on Small Schools in India

General Questions

Q1: What defines a “small school” in the Indian context?

A: In the Indian educational context, small schools are typically defined as those with a total enrollment of 50 or fewer students. According to UDISEPlus 2023-24 data, approximately 34.9% of India’s 1.47 million schools fall into this category.

Q2: Why do small schools exist in such large numbers in India?

A: Small schools exist due to several factors:

• Geographical necessities in remote, hilly, or sparsely populated areas
• Implementation of access norms requiring schools within specified distances from habitations
• Demographic changes, including migration from rural areas
• Fragmentation of educational services across multiple providers
• Implementation of the Right to Education Act guaranteeing access to schooling

Q3: Are small schools a uniquely Indian phenomenon?

A: No. Small schools exist worldwide, particularly in rural and remote regions. However, India has an unusually high proportion of very small schools compared to many other countries due to its geographical diversity, sizeable rural population, and educational access policies.

Operational Challenges

Q4: What are the main operational challenges facing small schools?

A: Key operational challenges include:

• Teacher shortages and multi-grade teaching requirements
• The administrative burden on limited staff
• Higher per-student operational costs
• Difficulties implementing specialized curriculum
• Limited infrastructure
• Challenges in meeting documentation and reporting requirements
• Digital connectivity issues
• Difficulties in implementing various government initiatives and programs

Q5: How do small schools manage with limited teaching staff?

A: Small schools typically employ various strategies:

• Multi-grade teaching, where one teacher handles multiple grade levels simultaneously
• Peer learning approaches where older students assist younger ones
• Flexible scheduling of subjects
• Integration of curriculum across grades
• Utilization of community resources and knowledge
• In some cases, the rotation of specialized teachers across school clusters

Q6: What specific administrative burdens do small schools face?

A: Small schools struggle with:

• Data entry across multiple platforms (UDISEPlus, SDMIS, PEN, APAAR)
• Management of mid-day meal programs with limited staff
• Maintaining various administrative records and registers
• Implementing health and hygiene monitoring
• Responding to time-bound government directives
• Financial management and procurement processes
• Community engagement responsibilities

Policy and Support

Q7: Does Samagra Shiksha provide special provisions for small schools?

A: Samagra Shiksha includes some provisions:

• Composite school grants with marginally higher per-student allocations for smaller schools
• School complex/cluster approaches to resource sharing
• Provisions for ICT infrastructure
• Teacher rationalization guidelines

However, these provisions are generally insufficient to address the fundamental challenges of small schools and aren’t consistently implemented across states.

Q8: What is a school complex/cluster approach, and how does it help small schools?

A: School complexes or clusters group several small schools with a larger hub school to share resources, specialized teachers, administrative support, and facilities. While helpful in theory, implementation faces challenges due to geographical barriers, transportation limitations, and coordination difficulties.

Q9: Are there special teacher training programs for multi-grade teaching in small schools?

A: While some states have developed specialized training modules for multi-grade teaching, these aren’t universally available. NCERT has developed resources for multi-grade teaching, but systematic training programs specifically tailored for teachers in very small schools remain limited.

Educational Quality and Outcomes

Q10: Do small schools provide lower-quality education than larger schools?

A: Research shows mixed results. Small schools can provide higher quality education when adequately resourced and supported with appropriate pedagogical approaches. They often offer advantages in individualized attention, community connections, and stronger teacher-student relationships. However, they may struggle with comprehensive curriculum delivery and specialized subject teaching without specialized support and resources.

Q11: How do learning outcomes in small schools compare to larger schools?

A: Learning outcomes vary significantly. Some studies indicate that when well-supported, small schools can achieve comparable or better outcomes in foundational literacy and numeracy. However, they may face challenges in specialized subjects at higher grade levels. Contextual factors, including teacher qualifications, resource availability, and community support, strongly influence outcomes.

Q12: How can digital technology help address small school challenges?

A: Digital technology can help through:

• Blended learning approaches that supplement local teaching
• Offline digital resources that don’t require constant connectivity
• Simplified administrative tools designed for low-connectivity environments
• Remote teaching for specialized subjects
• Teacher professional development support
• Shared administrative services

However, implementation requires addressing fundamental infrastructure issues, including power supply, device availability, and technical support.

Future Directions

Q13: Should small schools be consolidated to improve efficiency?

A: School consolidation remains controversial. While it can improve resource efficiency and provide more comprehensive facilities, it must be balanced against:

• Access concerns, particularly travel distance and safety for young children
• Cultural and community connections to local schools
• Potential negative impacts on enrollment and attendance
• Community development role of local schools in remote areas

Any consolidation strategies should involve community consultation and address transportation and access concerns.

Q14: What would an ideal differentiated planning approach for small schools include?

A: A practical approach would include:

• Scale-appropriate funding formulas that account for higher per-capita costs
• Specialized teacher training for multi-grade teaching
• Simplified administrative procedures and documentation requirements
• Cluster-based administrative support services
• Appropriate technology solutions considering connectivity limitations
• Modified curriculum and assessment approaches suited to multi-grade environments
• Community engagement strategies that leverage local resources

Q15: Are there successful models of small school management in India or internationally?

A: Several successful approaches exist:

• Finland’s small school networks with specialized itinerant teachers
• Colombia’s Escuela Nueva program for rural small schools
• Riverside School’s Satellite School Model in Gujarat
• Uttarakhand’s multi-grade teaching approaches
• Kerala’s school complex system
• Azim Premji Foundation’s work with small schools in multiple states

These models demonstrate that with appropriate support and contextualized approaches, small schools can provide high-quality education.

Education for All in India