Literacy in India
Literacy in India: Historical Perspective, Present Status & Road Ahead under NEP 2020
Introduction
India’s pursuit of universal literacy has witnessed both significant milestones and persistent challenges. The recent declaration of Mizoram as India’s first fully literate state (May 2025) is a remarkable achievement. Yet, India as a whole remains far from attaining universal literacy, especially for women, rural populations, and disadvantaged groups like Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), and Muslims.
This article presents a comprehensive analysis of the historical evolution of India’s literacy movement, the slowdown in recent years, current disparities across regions and social groups, and the way forward under the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020.
Historical Perspective of Literacy Movement in India
1. Early Years and Non-Formal Education (NFE)
- After independence, literacy was enshrined in the Constitution under Article 45, which called for free and compulsory education for all children up to age 14.
- Significant efforts toward adult and non-formal education began in the late 1970s:
- Non-Formal Education (1979): Targeted school dropouts in the 6–14 age group.
- Functional Literacy Programme (1978): Focused on adults aged 15–35, aiming for daily life skill-based literacy.
2. National Literacy Mission (NLM) and Total Literacy Campaigns (TLCs)
- Launched in 1988, the National Literacy Mission (NLM) aimed to make 100 million adults literate by 1995.
- Total Literacy Campaigns (TLCs): Community-driven efforts, such as the one in Ernakulam, Kerala, the first fully literate district in 1990.
- Post Literacy Programmes (PLPs) and Continuing Education Programmes (CEPs) followed TLCs to ensure long-term impact.
3. Saakshar Bharat Mission (SBM)
- Introduced in 2009, the Saakshar Bharat Mission focused on female literacy.
- Operated in 410 low-literacy districts, aiming to empower 70 million adults, including 60 million women.
- By 2018, over 29 million adults had been certified literate.
Why Has the Literacy Movement Slowed Down?
- Shift in Focus: Attention moved to universal elementary education under SSA and RTE.
- Decline in Adult Education Funding: Merging NLM into broader schemes diluted its visibility and impact.
- Implementation Gaps: Lack of monitoring and accountability led to ineffective execution.
- Teacher and Infrastructure Shortages: Especially in remote and tribal areas.
- Digital Divide: Many low-literacy regions lack access to devices and internet connectivity.
Current Literacy Scenario: Disparities and Status
Definition of a Literate Person
As per Census 2011, a literate person is defined as:
A person aged 7 years and above who can both read and write with understanding in any language.
Note: There is no standard national literacy test. Data is collected via self-reporting in censuses and surveys.
Literacy Rates by Group and Region
| State | Male (%) | Female (%) | SC (%) | ST (%) | Rural (%) | Urban (%) | Muslim (%) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Kerala | 97.4 | 95.2 | 88.7 | 91.1 | 95.0 | 98.0 | 93.0 |
| Delhi | 90.9 | 80.8 | 84.0 | 79.0 | 75.0 | 89.0 | 85.0 |
| Bihar | 84.9 | 73.9 | 66.0 | 64.0 | 61.0 | 79.0 | 70.0 |
| Uttar Pradesh | 81.8 | 63.4 | 70.0 | 65.0 | 65.0 | 80.0 | 68.0 |
| Maharashtra | 90.7 | 78.4 | 82.0 | 80.0 | 75.0 | 88.0 | 80.0 |
| Tamil Nadu | 87.9 | 77.9 | 85.0 | 83.0 | 78.0 | 90.0 | 82.0 |
| Rajasthan | 80.8 | 57.6 | 65.0 | 60.0 | 60.0 | 75.0 | 62.0 |
| West Bengal | 84.8 | 76.1 | 80.0 | 78.0 | 70.0 | 85.0 | 75.0 |
| Mizoram | 93.7 | 89.4 | 90.0 | 92.0 | 90.0 | 95.0 | 91.0 |
NEP 2020: Re-centering Literacy
The National Education Policy 2020 brings literacy back to the forefront with several critical interventions:
- Foundational Literacy and Numeracy (FLN): Declared the highest priority; universal FLN by 2025.
- NIPUN Bharat: National mission to improve FLN among children in Grades 1–3.
- Community Libraries and Volunteers: Promotes local literacy centers and retired teacher involvement.
- Inclusive Approach: Focused schemes for SC, ST, OBC, minorities, and girls.
- Technology Integration: Digital content via DIKSHA, mobile apps, and local language tools.
👉 Read Background Note on FLN – NEP 2020
Why Female Literacy Matters
- Educated mothers contribute to higher child school enrollment and retention.
- Better health and nutrition outcomes are observed in literate families.
- Increased economic participation by women improves household and national income.
- Empowerment: Literacy reduces gender-based violence, child marriage, and promotes leadership.
Conclusion and Way Forward
India’s literacy journey is far from complete. While success stories like Mizoram and Kerala are inspiring, many regions and communities still face deep-rooted challenges. The legacy of the National Literacy Mission and Saakshar Bharat must inform future action.
The NEP 2020 offers a visionary pathway, but its success will depend on:
- Effective local implementation and strong governance
- Increased public investment in adult literacy
- Robust monitoring and community ownership
- Focused support to marginalized groups
Universal literacy is not just an educational goal—it is a foundation for inclusive development, equity, and empowerment in India.
